Silica cycle
The silica cycle is the
Overview
Part of a series on |
Biogeochemical cycles |
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Silicon is the seventh most abundant element in the universe and the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (the most abundant is oxygen). The weathering of the Earth's crust by rainwater rich in carbon dioxide is a key process in the control of
Silicifiers are organisms that use silicic acid to precipitate
The diatoms dominate the fixation and export of
Understanding the silica cycle is important for understanding the functioning of marine food webs, biogeochemical cycles, and the biological pump. Silicic acid is delivered to the ocean through six pathways as illustrated in the diagram above, which all ultimately derive from the weathering of the Earth's crust.[12][1]
Terrestrial silica cycling
Silica is an important nutrient utilized by plants, trees, and grasses in the terrestrial
Weathering
Given sufficient time, rainwater can dissolve even a highly resistant silicate-based mineral such as quartz.[13] Water breaks the bonds between atoms in the crystal:[14]
The overall reaction for the dissolution of quartz results in silicic acid
- SiO2 + 2H2O → H4SiO4
Another example of a silicate-based mineral is enstatite (MgSiO3). Rainwater weathers this to silicic acid as follows:[15]
Reverse weathering
In recent years, the effect of reverse weathering on
Reverse weathering is often found in river deltas as these systems have high sediment accumulation rates and are observed to undergo rapid diagenesis.[18] The formation of silicate clays removes reactive silica from the pore waters of sediment, increasing the concentration of silica found in the rocks that form in these locations.[18]
Silicate weathering also appears to be a dominant process in deeper
Sinks
The major sink of the terrestrial silica cycle is export to the ocean by rivers. Silica that is stored in plant matter or dissolved can be exported to the ocean by rivers. The rate of this transport is approximately 6 Tmol Si yr−1.[20][3] This is the major sink of the terrestrial silica cycle, as well as the largest source of the marine silica cycle.[20] A minor sink for terrestrial silica is silicate that is deposited in terrestrial sediments and eventually exported to the Earth's crust.
Marine inputs
Riverine
As of 2021, the best estimate of the total riverine input of silicic acid is 6.2 (±1.8) Tmol Si yr−1.
Aeolian
No progress has been made regarding
Sandy beaches
A 2019 study has proposed that, in the
Marine silica cycling
Siliceous organisms in the ocean, such as
Biogenic silica production in the photic zone is estimated to be 240 ± 40 Tmol Si year −1.[20] Dissolution in the surface removes roughly 135 Tmol Si year−1, while the remaining Si is exported to the deep ocean within sinking particles.[3] In the deep ocean, another 26.2 Tmol Si Year−1 is dissolved before being deposited to the sediments as opal rain.[3] Over 90% of the silica here is dissolved, recycled and eventually upwelled for use again in the euphotic zone.[3]
Sources
The major sources of marine silica include rivers, groundwater flux, seafloor weathering inputs, hydrothermal vents, and atmospheric deposition (aeolian flux).[15] Rivers are by far the largest source of silica to the marine environment, accounting for up to 90% of all the silica delivered to the ocean.[15][20][35] A source of silica to the marine biological silica cycle is silica that has been recycled by upwelling from the deep ocean and seafloor.
The diagram on low-temperature processes shows how these can control the dissolution of (either amorphous or crystallized) siliceous minerals in seawater in and to the coastal zone and in the deep ocean, feeding submarine groundwater (FGW) and dissolved silicon in seawater and sediments (FW).[1] These processes correspond to both low and medium energy flux dissipated per volume of a given siliceous particle in the coastal zone, in the continental margins, and in the abysses and to high-energy flux dissipated in the surf zone.[1]
Sinks
Rapid dissolution in the surface removes roughly 135 Tmol opal Si year−1, converting it back to soluble silicic acid that can be used again for biomineralization.[20] The remaining opal silica is exported to the deep ocean in sinking particles.[20] In the deep ocean, another 26.2 Tmol Si Year−1 is dissolved before being deposited to the sediments as opal silica.[20] At the sediment water interface, over 90% of the silica is recycled and upwelled for use again in the photic zone.[20] Biogenic silica production in the photic zone is estimated to be 240 ± 40 Tmol si year −1.[36] The residence time on a biological timescale is estimated to be about 400 years, with each molecule of silica recycled 25 times before sediment burial.[20]
Deep seafloor deposition is the largest long-term sink of the marine silica cycle (6.3 ± 3.6 Tmol Si year−1), and is roughly balanced by the sources of silica to the ocean.[15] The silica deposited in the deep ocean is primarily in the form of siliceous ooze. When opal silica accumulates faster than it dissolves, it is buried and can provide a diagenetic environment for marine chert formation.[37] The processes leading to chert formation have been observed in the Southern Ocean, where siliceous ooze accumulation is the fastest.[37] Chert formation however can take tens of millions of years.[38] Skeleton fragments from siliceous organisms are subject to recrystallization and cementation.[37] Chert is the main fate of buried siliceous ooze and permanently removes silica from the oceanic silica cycle.
The siliceous ooze is eventually subducted under the crust and metamorphosed in the
Anthropogenic influences
The rise in agriculture of the past 400 years has increased the exposure rocks and soils, which has resulted in increased rates of silicate weathering. In turn, the leaching of
In 2019 a group of scientists suggested acidification is reducing diatom silica production in the Southern Ocean.[40][41]
-
Concentration of silicic acid in the upper pelagic zone,[42] showing high levels in the Southern Ocean
Role in climate regulation
The silica cycle plays an important role in long term global climate regulation. The global silica cycle also has large effects on the
Biogenic silica accumulation on the sea floor contains lot of information about where in the ocean
Isotope ratios of oxygen (O18:O16) and silicon (Si30:Si28) are analysed from biogenic silica preserved in lake and marine sediments to derive records of past climate change and nutrient cycling (De La Rocha, 2006; Leng and Barker, 2006). This is a particularly valuable approach considering the role of diatoms in global carbon cycling. In addition, isotope analyses from BSi are useful for tracing past climate changes in regions such as in the Southern Ocean, where few biogenic carbonates are preserved.
The
See also
References
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- ^ DeMaster, D.J. (1981)."The supply and accumulation of silica in the marine environment". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45: 1715-1732.
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