Rock cycle
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The rock cycle is a basic concept in
Transition to igneous rock
When rocks are pushed deep under the
Secondary changes
Epigenetic change (secondary processes occurring at low temperatures and low pressures) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming
Transition to metamorphic rock
Rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic. Regional metamorphism refers to the effects on large masses of rocks over a wide area, typically associated with mountain building events within orogenic belts. These rocks commonly exhibit distinct bands of differing mineralogy and colors, called foliation. Another main type of metamorphism is caused when a body of rock comes into contact with an igneous intrusion that heats up this surrounding country rock. This contact metamorphism results in a rock that is altered and re-crystallized by the extreme heat of the magma and/or by the addition of fluids from the magma that add chemicals to the surrounding rock (metasomatism). Any pre-existing type of rock can be modified by the processes of metamorphism.[4][5]
Transition to sedimentary rock
Rocks exposed to the
Forces that drive the rock cycle
Plate tectonics
In 1967, J. Tuzo Wilson published an article in Nature describing the repeated opening and closing of ocean basins, in particular focusing on the current Atlantic Ocean area. This concept, a part of the plate tectonics revolution, became known as the Wilson cycle. The Wilson cycle has had profound effects on the modern interpretation of the rock cycle as plate tectonics became recognized as the driving force for the rock cycle.
Spreading ridges
At the
Subduction zones
The new basaltic oceanic crust eventually meets a subduction zone as it moves away from the spreading ridge. As this crust is pulled back into the mantle, the increasing pressure and temperature conditions cause a restructuring of the mineralogy of the rock, this metamorphism alters the rock to form eclogite. As the slab of basaltic crust and some included sediments are dragged deeper, water and other more volatile materials are driven off and rise into the overlying wedge of rock above the subduction zone, which is at a lower pressure. The lower pressure, high temperature, and now volatile rich material in this wedge melts and the resulting buoyant magma rises through the overlying rock to produce island arc or continental margin volcanism. This volcanism includes more silicic lavas the further from the edge of the island arc or continental margin, indicating a deeper source and a more differentiated magma.
At times some of the metamorphosed downgoing slab may be thrust up or obducted onto the continental margin. These blocks of mantle peridotite and the metamorphic eclogites are exposed as ophiolite complexes.
The newly erupted volcanic material is subject to rapid erosion depending on the climate conditions. These sediments accumulate within the basins on either side of an island arc. As the sediments become more deeply buried lithification begins and sedimentary rock results.
Continental collision
On the closing phase of the classic Wilson cycle, two continental or smaller terranes meet at a convergent zone.[6] As the two masses of continental crust meet, neither can be subducted as they are both low density silicic rock. As the two masses meet, tremendous compressional forces distort and modify the rocks involved.[7] The result is regional metamorphism within the interior of the ensuing orogeny or mountain building event. As the two masses are compressed, folded and faulted into a mountain range by the continental collision the whole suite of pre-existing igneous, volcanic, sedimentary and earlier metamorphic rock units are subjected to this new metamorphic event.
Accelerated erosion
The high mountain ranges produced by continental collisions are immediately subjected to the forces of erosion.[8] Erosion wears down the mountains and massive piles of sediment are developed in adjacent ocean margins, shallow seas, and as continental deposits. As these sediment piles are buried deeper they become lithified into sedimentary rock. The metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks of the mountains become the new piles of sediments in the adjoining basins and eventually become sedimentary rock.
An evolving process
The plate tectonics rock cycle is an evolutionary process. Magma generation, both in the spreading ridge environment and within the wedge above a subduction zone, favors the eruption of the more silicic and volatile rich fraction of the crustal or
The role of water
The presence of abundant
A less obvious role of water is in the metamorphism processes that occur in fresh seafloor volcanic rocks as seawater, sometimes heated, flows through the fractures and crevices in the rock. All of these processes, illustrated by serpentinization, are an important part of the destruction of volcanic rock.[13]
The role of water and other volatiles in the melting of existing crustal rock in the wedge above a subduction zone is a most important part of the cycle. Along with water, the presence of carbon dioxide and other carbon compounds from abundant marine limestone within the sediments atop the down going slab is another source of melt inducing volatiles. This involves the carbon cycle as a part of the overall rock cycle.[14]
See also
- Migmatite – Mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock
References
- ^ "The Rock Cycle". National Geographic. Education National Geographic. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ISBN 0521619483.
- ^ public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 331. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ISBN 978-3-540-74169-5. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ^ "Sedimentary Rocks". National Geographic. Education National Geographic. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- . Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ISSN 0084-6597. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- S2CID 216238429. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- . Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ISBN 9781856175586. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- .
- ^ "Action of water in the rock cycle". Unacademy. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ISBN 9780128093573.
- ^ "The Slow Carbon Cycle". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 16 June 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- Blatt, Harvey & Robert J. Tracy (1996). Petrology; Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic, 2nd Ed. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
- Fichter, Lynn S., (2000), The Wilson Cycle and a Plate Tectonic Rock Cycle, James Madison University, Department of Geology and Environmental Science. Retrieved 18 Aug. 2005.
- Plummer, Charles; McGeary, David; Carlson, Diane (2005). Physical Geology. Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 0-07-293353-4.