Kizil Caves
Location | Xinjiang, China |
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Coordinates | 41°47′04″N 82°30′17″E / 41.78444°N 82.50472°E |
Kizil Caves | |
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Uyghur name | |
Hanyu Pinyin | Kèzī'ěr Qiānfú Dòng |
IPA | [kʰɤ̂tsɹ̩́àɚ tɕʰjɛ́nfǔ tʊ̂ŋ] |
The Kizil Caves (also romanized as Qizil or Qyzyl;
The Kizil Caves were inscribed in 2014 on the
Caves
The Kizil Caves complex is the largest of the ancient Buddhist cave sites that are associated with the ancient
Overview
There are 236 cave temples in Kizil, carved into the cliff stretching from east to west for a length of 2 km.[1] Of these, 135 are still relatively intact.[13] The earliest caves are dated, based in part on radioactive carbon dating, to around the year 300.[14] Most researchers believe that the caves were probably abandoned sometime around the beginning of the 8th century, after Tang influence reached the area.[15] Documents written in Tocharian languages were found in Kizil and a few of the caves contain Tocharian and Sanskrit inscriptions which give the names of a few rulers.
Many of the caves have a central pillar design, whereby pilgrims may circumambulate around a central column incorporating a niche for a statue of the Buddha, which is a representation of the stupa.
There are three other types of caves: square caves, caves "with a colossal image", and monastic cells (kuti). Around two-thirds of the caves are kutis which are monks' living quarters and store-houses and these caves do not contain mural paintings.[10] Chronology remains the subject of debate.[16][10]
"Central pillar" cave structure
In the typical "central pillar" design, pilgrims can circumambulate around a central column incorporating a niche for a statue of the Buddha, which is a representation of the stupa. The so-called "central pillar" which appears on a plan is actually not a pillar at all but only the rock at the back of the cave, into which was bored a circular corridor allowing for circumambulation.[17]
A large vaulted chamber is located in front of the "central pillar" column and a smaller rear chamber behind with two tunnel-like corridors on the sides linking these spaces. In the front chamber, a three-dimensional image of Buddha would have been housed in a large niche serving as the focus of the interior, however, none of these sculptures have survived at Kizil.[18] The rear chamber may feature the parinirvana scene in the form of a mural or large sculpture, and in some cases, a combination of both. The "central pillar" layout is possibly related to the structural design of Kara Tepe in northern Bactria.[19]
The program of the paintings in the "central pillar" caves generally follows a fixed arrangement: the walls of the main cella show sermons of the Buddha, the ceiling has
Exploration
The Kizil Caves were first discovered and explored in 1902–1904 by the
The Kizil caves were then explored by
Grünwedel removed a great number of paintings, but was careful to make records before doing so in order to retain their archaeological value, and to photograph or draw them before cutting them out, out of fear that they could be destroyed upon removal or during transport.[30] He used a canvas to take quite precise records of the paintings. For example, Grünwedel recounts how he discovered a very interesting mural with warriors in the Cave of the Painters (207). Intending to remove it, he first made a precise drawing. But once the drawing was made, the mural disintegrated upon removal and was lost, except for a few fragments still in-situ.[31] Altogether, the Third German Expedition still removed many paintings, and shipped almost 120 crates of murals to Berlin.[32] Grünwedel published the result of his explorations in 1912 in Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch Turkistan, Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten von 1906 bis 1907 bei Kuča, Qarašahr und in der Oase Turfan.[28]
Grünwedel discovered that the Kizil Caves were essential in the understanding of the development of Buddhist art, and suggested some forms of Western artistic influences as well:
For years I have been endeavouring to find a credible thesis for the development of Buddhist art, and primarily to trace the ancient route by which the art of imperial Rome, etc..., reached the Far East. What I have seen here goes beyond my wildest dreams. If only I had hands enough to copy it all, [for] here in Kizil are about 300 caves, some of them containing frescoes, all of them very old and fine."
— Letter by Grünwedel, April 2, 1906.[33]
The French explorer Paul Pelliot and his photographer Charles Nouette, who were in Kucha from January 1907, visited Kizil soon after the German mission, from September 1, 1907, over a few days, and Charles Nouette took many beautiful and informative photographs.[34][35][36]
Albert von Le Coq came back to Kizil and surrounding areas in 1913–1914, heading the Fourth German Expedition, removing many paintings, including those Grünwedel had left in place, but generally taking much fewer records than his predecessor.[32][37]
Datation schemes
Albert Grünwedel and the German school
Datation scheme according to the German school[38][39] | |||
Style I "Gandharan" |
Style II "Sasanian" | ||
500–600 CE: Caves 207, 118, 76, 117, 77, 212, 83, 84 |
In 1912
Modern attempts at Carbon 14 dating
Various attempts at radio-carbon analysis were made over the years, with various degrees of success, but with the main effect of pushing back the dates of the first caves to circa 300 BCE, and challenging the German classification according to styles and colors schemes.[38]
In 1979, a Chinese institute (文物保护科学技术研究所, Wenwu baohu kexue jishu yanjiusuo) carbon-tested caves 63, 47, 13.[40]
Su Bai
Datation scheme according to Su Bai (1981)[39][38] | |||
Stage I "Initial stage" 310 CE +-80 350 CE +-60 |
Stage II "Flourishing stage" 395 CE +-65 465 CE +-65 |
Stage III "Decline stage" 545 CE +-75 685 CE +-65 | |
Caves 38, 47, 6, 80, 13 | Caves 77, 17, 171, 104, 139, 119, 35, 36, 92, 118, 39, 49, 14 | Caves 201, 70, 148, 234, 187, 185, 182, 183, 181, 189, 190, 172, 8, 107B, 107A, 180, 197 | |
Huo and Wang (1993)[38][39] | |||
Stage I 200–350 CE |
Stage II 350–500 CE |
Stage III 500–700 CE | |
Caves 118, 92, 77, 47, 48, 117, 161, 196, 224, 17, 104 | Caves 38, 76, 83, 84, 114, 13, 32, 171, 172 | Caves 110, 57, 212, 81, 184, 188, 199, 207, 8, 205, 99, 4, 123, 206, 178 |
In 1979–1981, Su Bai (宿白) of Beijing University (北京大学历史系考古教研室, Beijing daxue lishi xi kaogu jiaoyanshi) made an influential carbon-testing campaign for caves 47, 3, 38, 6, 171, 17, 190, 8.[40] Based on these dates and on an analysis of the architecture of the caves (from the simpler to the more sophisticated), Su Bai proposed an influential dating scheme, pushing back the dates of the first caves to circa 300 CE.[39]
Huo and Wang
In 1989–1993, Huo and Wang (中国社会科学院考古研究所, Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan kaogu yanjiusuo) tested the following caves: 224, 76, 4, 8, 34, 68, 77, 98, 104, 114, 117, 118, 119, 125, 129, 135, 162, 171, 180, 189, 196, 198, 206, 212, 219, 227, 27, 39, 48, 60, 69, 84, 91, 92, 99, 123, 139, 161, 165, 178, 207.[40] They proposed a chronology which has some significant differences with the chronology previously proposed by Su Bai.[39]
Japanese teams of Nagoya University (日本名古屋大学) tested in 1995, 1997, 1998 and 2011 the following caves: 8, 171, 224, 13, 67, 76, 77, 92, 205.[40]
Many of the results remain inconclusive, sometimes even contradictory, and the historical period in question is rather too short in relation to the uncertainty margin of Carbon 14 datation, to provide a meaningful segmentation of the caves.[41] Most narrow Carbon dates given for the Kizil Caves refer to a 68% probability level (1σ), which implies a significant level of uncertainty, and when dates are adjusted to the 95% probability level (2σ) as standard archaeological practice requires,[42] then the timespan between the earliest and lowest dates becomes so large (about 200 to 300 years),[43] as to make individual comparisons between the caves meaningless.[44] Most researchers now use an approach combining artistic and architectural analysis together with carbon-dating, as a way to approach a reliable nomenclature, as proposed by Marylin Martin Rhie from 2001.[39]
Caves, murals and architecture
In 1906, the German expedition team of
Carbon-testing and stylistical analysis helped determine three main periods in the paintings at Kizil, which cover a period from 300 CE to 650 CE.
The Kizil Caves were designated by the Germans by a series of names, and have been separately numbered by the Chinese. A correspondence chart has been produced by Rhie.[52]
Some very early caves, now numbered 90–17 to 90–24, have been discovered since the 1990s in the lower parts of the cliff at the entrance of the central valley. These caves were square or rectangular with barrel-vaulted ceilings, but without any decorations.[53]
General characteristics
A notable feature of the murals in Kizil is the extensive use of blue pigments, including the precious
Another characteristic of the Kizil murals is the division into diamond-shaped blocks in the vault ceilings of the main room of many caves. Buddhist scenes are depicted inside these diamond-shapes in many layers on top of one another to show the narrative sequences of the scenes.[1]
Color pigments
The pigments in the painting of the Kizil Caves have been analysed by
Style periods
A broad classification of styles, formalized by Le Coq and Waldschmidt in 1933,[54] has been generally accepted.[55]
The first style is called "Indo-Iranian style I", and cover all the early caves with delicate tone-on-tone paintings, using browns, oranges and greens. The name "Indo-Iranian" broadly denotes the artistic influence from India, combined with elements of Iranian art, that presided over the creation of the first cave paintings at Kizil.
The second style is called "Indo-Iranian style II", and cover most of the other caves of Kizil, which use strongly contrasted colors and strong line strokes, using browns, oranges and greens and especially a vivid lapis-lazuli blue. The name "Indo-Iranian" again broadly denotes the artistic influence from India, combined with important influences from Central Asian and the Iranian world.[54] This style is further divided in three broad periods.[54]
Finally, a third Uighur-Chinese style appears in only two caves at Kizil.
First Indo-Iranian Style: delicate "orange and green" paintings
The
The 1st Style, sometimes called "First Indo-Iranian style" to denote influences from India and Central Asia, covers a period from 300 to 500 CE, and is characterized by
Period 1: "Classical" early style (circa 300–400 CE)
The earliest paintings at Kizil belong to a "Classical" stage. Their style is very elegant and "painterly", with sophisticated shading of the bodies to express sculptural volume. The lines are refined and subtle, the colors blend softly.[70] This style is also characteristically Indian, and may be related to Gandhara or Kashmir.[70] This early style is exemplified by the Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118), and may form a distinctive school. This contrasts with the style of the following stage, as seen in the panels in the cella of the Cave of the Statues, such as the "Cowherd Nanda", which is much bolder, using intense colors (but still browns, greens and oranges only), thicker lines and simpler patterns.[70]
Early paintings
Early inscriptions in
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Kizil First Period 300-395 CE
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Kizil First Period 300-395 CE (devotee detail)
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Kizil First Period 300-395 CE. Tocharian inscription: "The Buddha was painted by the hand of Ratna(...)".[72]
Earliest painted caves
(cave 118, 300–350 CE)
According to the Chinese chronicles of the Jin dynasty (265-316 CE), there were already a thousand Buddhist stupas and temples in Kucha by the 3rd century CE.[76][77]
The earliest painted caves at Kizil are thought to be Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118) and Treasure Caves C and B (Caves 83 and 84 respectively).[73] Cave 118, possibly the earliest of the three, is located deep inside the central valley.[78] Cave 83 and 84 are located at the entrance of the same valley. These caves have simple architectural structures, together with paintings in a clear style, reflecting Indian influences.[73] Noble or wealthy Tocharian donors from Kucha, wearing tunics, sometimes appear kneeling at the side of devotional paintings.[75]
"Cave of the Hippocampi" (Cave 118, 300–350 CE)
The
The cave consists of a rectangular room (3.6 x 4.8 meters), the entrance being on the long side, and the ceiling of which forms a transverse barrel vault.[73] In front of the cave, which is accessible through a door, there used to be an equally wide open space, perhaps adorned with paintings, with remains of a pyramid roof.[73] The two rooms are separated by a 1-meter-thick wall.[29] The model for this kind of vaulted cave can be found in Bactria at Kara Tepe, dating from the 2nd-3rd century CE.[73]
In the middle of the back wall of the main cella stands a large painting (3.42 m wide and 2.16 m high), with an unidentified scene of a King with attendants, possibly "The skill and music in the heavenly palace" (天宫伎乐).[73] The attitudes and postures of the figures remind the reliefs of 3rd–4th century CE Nagarjunakonda.[73] A king is seated at the center, with numerous attendants surrounding him, especially a near-naked woman seated to his left.[29] They wear heavy round earrings with a central rosette design.[29] The modeling of the faces reminds of the statuary of Hadda in Gandhara.[29] The picture is elaborately framed by five successive decorative borders with naturalistic vine rinceau, suggestive of Roman art.[73]
The colors of the murals are various shades of brown, with smatterings of light green, but no blue, defining the so-called "orange and green" style.
The lunettes bordering the ceiling display ornate Buddhist scenes.
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A reconstitution of the mural of the back wall
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Cave of the Hippocampi, ceiling detail
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Monks with "ocher shorn hair", on the ceiling of the Cave of the Hippocampi.[75]
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Right portion of the cave, as photographed by Charles Nouette in 1907
"Treasure Cave C" (Cave 83, 300–350 CE)
Cave 83 (Treasure Cave C) is part of the compact group of the four "Treasure Caves" (82, 83, 84, 85) located at the entrance of the central valley. It is a relatively small square cave (3.6x3.6m), with a podium in the middle, probably for a statue or a stupa.[73] Here the ceiling has collapsed, but probably formed a cupola.[73][81]
The back wall had a well-preserved scene of a
In this cave, the frames of the paintings, especially the vine rinceaux, are probably derived from Roman art of the 1st century CE.[73] This cave may be slightly earlier then Cave 84.[73] The mural was sent to Berlin by Grünwedel (Ref: MIK III 8443).[73]
These paintings are soft and delicate: volumes are defined by gradations of shades and colors, not by the sharp limit of a line. Overall, "the brush has the priority over drawing".[81]
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Treasure Cave C with mural visible on the back wall, as of 1912.
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Treasure Cave 83, attendants, with ornatecapitalin the background (detail)
"Treasure Cave B" (Cave 84, 300–350 CE)
These two caves are adjoined to cave 82, an undecorated
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Treasure Cave B (Cave 84), with murals visible on the back wall as of 1912.
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Known structure and decorative layout of Treasure Cave B (Cave 84)
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People around the Buddha, Cave 84
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Attendant, Cave 84
"Peacock Cave" (Cave 76, circa 400 CE)
circa 400 CE
The "
A rectangular vestibule, the vaulted roof of which is now collapsed, preceded the main chamber.
In the center of the main chamber, there is a large podium, on which probably stood some major statuary associated with the Buddha.
This presentation of the various events of the life of the Buddha in successive panels reminds of examples from
The dome over the cella is composed of eight pairs of segments filled with a flying apsara among peacock feather. Numerous devatas and Buddhas of the past are painted around the dome.[84]
According to Historian of Art Benjamin Rowland, commenting one of the remaining fragments, the "group of sword-bearing figures are recognizable Indian ethnic types".[91]
Pictures of monks and one Kuchean donor holding a basket of flowers, all labeled with Brahmi inscriptions, appeared on the door wall.[97][98] In the art of Kizil explanatory labels were often added to pictures of donors.[99] On the contrary, such labels were never used for narrative representations.[99]
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The Seduction of Mara's daughters (left), who are turned into old women (right).
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The Assault of Mara
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Musician detail, Cave 76
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One of the eight pairs of segments from the dome with peacock feathers.
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Top portion of two of the "peacock" segments.
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Lower row of panels in the left wall.
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Central pedestal in the Peacock Cave (total width of 2.18 meters)
The "Cave of the Seafarers" (cave 212, circa 400 CE)
Circa 400 CE
The "
A painter "Rumakama" (, "the one from Rome"),[103] appears in a Sanskrit inscription in the cave.[101] The inscription, scribbled on the right side of the mural, reads:
"After this painting was done, the one who came from Rumakama (Syria), the painter Manibhadra, did these circles below".[104][105]
According to Grünwedel, "the circles (mandalâni) undoubtedly refer to the edges made of foliage and human skulls", that is the Classical border of acanthus leaves and Buddhist skulls painted along the inferior border of the mural.[106]
The word Rumakama, or Romakam appears in the Kizil paintings as well as in the later Tibetan document, and is thought to refer to a painter who came from the Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire.[107]
Period 2: "New school" with bolder style (circa 400–500 CE)
Following the earliest "Classical" style of the paintings at Kizil, which was especially elegant and "painterly", with sophisticated shading of the bodies to express sculptural volume,
This evolution in style is accompanied by a change in the main themes being portrayed. In the Classical period the story of the life of the Buddha and numerous
Rhie attributes the sudden variations of styles at Kizil, without much signs of internal evolution (especially in the early stages), to the sudden arrival of new groups of artists from other regions, bringing their own artistic idioms and techniques.[112] This period is also marked by the appearance of the self-portraits of painters in long tunics and highboots armed with short daggers, such as the
"Cave of the statues" (Cave 77, 375–400 CE)
375–400 CE
The "Cave of the Statues"[70] (Statuenhöhle) was a magnificent cave, located next to the "Peacock Cave" (Cave 76). It is a "colossal image cave", with no niche in the main cella, but a podium on which a colossal standing statue of the Buddha probably stood.[70] In an atypical design, the back corridor is quite large and wider than the main cella, with a width of 8.70 meters, for a height of 5.10 meters.[70] Only seven other "Colossal image caves" are known in Kizil, including caves 47, 48, 70, 136, 139, 146.[4] They are characterized by a very tall main cella designed to accommodate a gigantic image of the Buddha, the height of the cella reaching around 5 meters and sometimes as high as 16.5 meters (such as in cave 47), and also a rather tall back room (often around 5–6 meters high).[4]
The numerous statues of the cave were made of clay and straw, fibers or hair for reinforcement, and often dated to the 6th century CE,[120] but now rather dated to 375–400 CE in conjunction with carbon dates.[101][121][7][90] Many of the statues were made from molds, which had Sanskrit names on them, which are probably the names of the crafsmen or the owners.[120]
The cave is a "central pillar" cave, but the roof of the main cella, which formed a vault culminating at around 6 meters, has entirely collapsed. A few paintings remained on the walls of the main cella: they were sermons of the Buddha organized in several rows, the size of each of these pictures being 1.34 m wide and 96 cm high. The sermon images were "of pure Gandhara style".[122] Their style was very close to those of the "Cave of the Painters (Cave 207)", and, according to Grünwedel, "they seem to have been executed by the same hand".[122][123] Albert Grünwedel attributed both caves to the same "Stage I" period (500–600 CE).[38][39]
Several fine fragments of very fine painting have reached us, which are attributed to the Cave of the Statues.[124] Grünwedel explained that only three paintings remained in the cella, all scenes of the sermon of the Buddha:
1) On the right wall of the cella, Grünwedel described the picture of a sermon, with "a youth in light undergarment praying in front of Buddha", corresponding to the picture now described as the "cowherd Nanda", known to have come from the Cave of the Statues.[122]
2) In the opposite location, on the left wall, Grünwedel described a sermon scene in which the Buddha "only had his feet remaining", corresponding to the panel photographed by Charles Nouette in-situ in 1907.[122]
3) Finally Grünwedel described a sermon scene with only a "kneeling adorant" remaining, corresponding to the kneeling Vajrapani, known to have come from the Cave of the Statues.[122]
The style of these panels from the main cella is markedly different from the refined, "classical" style of the side corridor vaults and the back corridor. They suggests different painters and different schools of art. In the cella, the paintings are much bolder, using intense colors, thicker lines and simpler patterns, as in the "Cowherd Nanda".[70] The colors of the paintings in the cella, although more intense, are still limited to browns, greens and oranges.[70] The big eyes and wide eyelids remind of late Kushana works.[70] These new types of paintings suggest the emergence of a bold new style in Kucha around that time.[70]
A painter, holding a cup of paint, and whose clothes "exactly match" the painters in the "Cave of the Painters" (caftan, boots...) is visible in one of the murals of the cave.[113][114] Originally at the front end of the left corridor, behind the first statue, the painting is now located in the Hermitage Museum.[125] Two more devotee figures with the same clothes were located in the back corridor as well.[122]
One of the statues is a man in a particular type of armour with sectioned areas, which used to stand as a protector (possibly a Vajrapani) to the left side of the colossal Buddha of the main cella.[70] This type of armour was in use for several centuries in art of the Northern segment of the Silk Road, and later became prevalent in China.[126] The head is a tentative addition.[127] Lü Guang, a Chinese general sent by Emperor Fu Jian (r. 357–385) of the Former Qin dynasty (351–394), who temporarily conquered Kucha in 383–385 CE, mentioned the powerful armour of Kuchaen soldiers, a type of chainmail and lamellar armour of Sasanian inspiration which can also be seen in the paintings of the Kizil Caves:[61]
They were skillful with arrows and horses, and good with short and long spears. They armour was like chain link; even if one shoots it, [the arrow] cannot go in.
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Front of the cave. The main cella, about 6 meters in height, has collapsed, and the entrances to the two side corridors are directly exposed.
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Plan and side view of the Cave of the Statues. The front room, about 6 meters tall, has a huge podium (3.8x1.4 meters) for a colossal statue of the Buddha. The large back room has a rare gabled ceiling.
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The sermon scene just before the entrance to the left corridor, photographed in-situ by Charles Nouette in 1907
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Seated Vajrapani, Cave of the Statues, Kizil Caves.14C date: 406-425 CE.[101]
The side corridors are structurally highly sophisticated and remain visible to this day. A low platform runs along the external wall of each corridor, on which rows of statues were displayed, with murals behind them including the figure of the painter in tunic and boots. Above them, the top of each corridor formed a high vault, equipped with a lunette on the southern side, and decorated over its length with rows of devatas behind a balustrade, standing around a Buddha Maitreya, and on top of them landscapes with rhombus losange designs with monks, animals, trees and ponds, of the type seen in vault of the Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118).[70][128][129]
The back corridor, also visible today, is quite unusual, as its vault is trabeated, formed of three flat longitudinal surfaces, on which figures of devatas are aligned like a deck of cards.[70][129] On the bench along the back wall, stood a colossal reclining Buddha image in a scene of the Parinirvana, with elegant flying devatas hovering over the Buddha.[70][128] Remains of female statues seated on the back bench were visible, with, at their, feet the bust of a man-elephant.[128]
The style of the paintings in this cave, especially in the side and back corridors is very elegant and "painterly", with sophisticated shading of the bodies to express sculptural volume.[70] It is quite similar to the style of the Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118), and may belong to the same school.[70] This refined style contrasts with the style of panels in the cella, the "Cowherd Nanda", which is much bolder, using intense colors (browns, greens and oranges), thicker lines and simpler patterns.[70] This divergence suggests that the "Cave of the Statues" may be transitional between these two early styles.[70] Later caves such as the Cave of the Musicians point to an even more different style, using vivid colors and Ligne claire sharp lines to delineate body shapes together with the abundant use of intense blue pigments, with different roots inspired by the Western art of the 4th century CE.[70]
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Remains of statues in the left corridor ("2" in the map). The painter in caftan is in the corner behind the first statue from the left.[130] The statues too were painted.
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Cave of the Statues, back room mural, over a reclining statue of the Parinirvana Buddha.[131]
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Left corridor, devatas standing at a balcony (detail).
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Ceiling of the back corridor (detail)
"Cave of the Painters" (Cave 207, dated 478–536 CE)
(Cave 207, 478–536 CE)
The "Cave of the Painters" (Malerhöhle, 画家窟, Cave 207)[134] is one of the earliest caves of Kizil, and one of the most beautiful.[135] The cave contained a statue of the Buddha against the rear wall of the cella, and a barrel-vaulted ambulatory surrounded it.[135] The main cellar contained nine murals of the preaching Buddha on each side wall.[135]
The name of the cave comes from the numerous self-portraits of painters standing at the side of the murals, holding paint cupellas and brushes.
Paleography, stylistic analysis and carbon dating combine to give a date of circa 500 CE for these paintings.[135] Some stylistic elements have a strong Classical touch, such as Roman-style friezes at the top of the walls, over scenes of the Buddha.[132]
The Cave of the Painters, as some other caves at Kizil, depicts men in caftans with a triangular collar on the right side, and a unique hairstyle. Another marker is the two-point suspension system for swords, which seems to have been a
The paintings of the Caves of the Painters have been
The main cella contains 18 scenes of the Buddha preaching.[143] The niche must have contained a monumental statue of the Buddha, and paintings related to the Indrasala Cave narrative.[143] The ceiling is prismatic, reproducing a type of architecture known from Bamiyan.[143] The right corridor contained murals related to the War for the Relics and the Sharing of the relics of the Buddha, one of them showing armoured warriors on horses.[143] The murals of the back corridor were almost entirely gone by 1912. Only a few traces remained, suggesting scenes of the Parinirvana.[143] The left corridor had a beautiful mural showing a monk transmitting the teachings of the Buddha to a kneeling royal family, whether the mural in front of it on the external wall was entirely gone.[143]
Similarities have been noted between the paintings of the Cave of the Painters and those of Dilberjin Tepe and Penjikent of the 5th–6th centuries.[144]
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Cave of the Painters, plan
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Self-portraits of the painters at Kizil. Labels in Sanskrit (Gupta script): "Painting of + (name)"
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Mural in the Cave of the Painters, with painter in caftan in the lower right corner, circa 500 CE.[145][146] He has a label written in Sanskrit (Gupta script): "The Painter Tutuka" (Citrakara Tutukasya).[136] "Citrakara" (चित्रकला) is Sanskrit and Hindi for "painter/painting".[137][138][139][140] Photograph and drawing from 1912, and current state in-situ.[147]
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Mural with warriors in the right corridor, outside wall: theHunnish designs of rectangle or oval shapes with cloisonné ornamentation:[47] Weaponry can be dated to the 5th century CE.[47] The mural was very clear, but disintegrated upon removal by Grünwedel: only a few fragments remain in-situ.
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Detail of a Devata (right wall, top tier, left scene)
Cave 60: "Largest Cave"
Cave 60, also called the "Largest Cave", is a cave which was expanded over several periods, and still contained a few paintings belonging to the refined style of the Classical First Period, while most of the paintings are from the later Second Period.[148] The cave is known for its portrait of royal donors, characteristically accompanied by a label in Brahmi script.[148] This is the only known possible instance of a portrait of royal donors in a painting of the First Style, whereas they occur very often during the second period.[148] The style of painting is very similar to that seen in the Cave of the Painters (Cave 207).[148] The hairstyle of the male donor is quite similar to that of the famous painter in the Cave of the Painters.[148]
The cave is also remarkable for the presence of Sasanian-style ducks in a bead roundel frames, a well-known motif which spread through Central Asia, and is known from the dress of a Central Asian ambassador from Afrasiab.[149] This motif was likely painted later than the portraits of the royal donors.[148]
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The "Largest Cave", Cave 60
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The panel in First Style, with royal donors and Brahmi label.[148]
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Detail of the royal donor with a hairstyle similar to that of the main painter in the Cave of the Painters.[148]
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Sasanian motif of birds in pearl roundels, a likely later painting.[148]
Second Indo-Iranian Style: strongly contrasted "blue and green" paintings
The "Second Indo-Iranian style" evolved with a few intermediate stages, expressing continuous influence from India, combined with influence from the Eastern Iran sphere, at that time occupied by the
Central-Asian stylistic elements
This style is characterized by strong Iranian-
The use of strongly contrasted "blue and green" colours, made possible by the importation of lapis lazuli blue pigments from Central Asia, and the drawing of a line for contours, are characteristic of this style.[48][67] This style, exemplified by the Cave of the Musicians, using vivid colors and Ligne claire sharp lines to delineate body shapes, seems to be inspired by the Western art of the 4th century CE, and is very different from the style of the Kizil caves of the earlier period, which on the contrary is very elegant and "painterly" with nuanced colors and sophisticated shading of the bodies to express sculptural volume, and which probably points to different artistical roots.[70] Still no East-Asian influence is visible in these paintings.[48]
-
Sasanian-style medallions in Cave 60, Kizil Caves.
-
Jivajivaka two-headed bird, in blue-and-green style. Kizil Cave 38.
-
Sun God Aditya on his chariot, Cave 171
-
Cave 38, moon symbol
Period 1: Initial transitional style
The first period consist in a short interval of transitional style, in which paintings remain subtil and rather nuanced, but blue pigments have started to appear. The Cave of the Devil C (Cave 198) and Cave of the Devil A (Cave 199), as well as the Cave with the Steps (Cave 110) and sometimes the Red-domed Cave A (Cave 67) are considered as the first period of this new style.[48]
-
Lunette scene. Cave 198
-
Mural, Cave 198
-
Monks and devotees, Cave 199
-
Murals with Princes, Cave 199
-
Devotee (right) making an offering to the Buddha, Cave 110
Period 2: main stylistic period
"Cave of the Musicians" (Cave 38)
According to Rhie, the "Cave of the Musicians"[153] is probably the earliest of the "central pillar" caves at Kizil, dated to the mid-4th century CE, and its iconography is also among the earliest.[154] Carbon testing by Su Bai gave dates ranging from 310 +/-80 CE to 350 +/-60 CE (i.e. a maximum range of 230-410 CE).[17][47][65] Huo and Wang attributed the cave to the Second Period, giving it a date from mid-4th to late 5th century (circa 350–499 CE).[17] The traditional German datation estimated the cave to be from the 600–650 CE period, and presented it as an example of the later "Blue-green style", said to succeed chronologically the "Orange-green style" group.[17]
The so-called "central pillar" which appears on a plan is actually not a pillar at all but only the rock at the back of the cave, into which was bored a circular corridor allowing for
The style of the paintings is derived from the
-
Entrance of Cave 38
-
Ceiling, photographed in 1907 by Charles Nouette
-
Tusita Heaven, over the exit door.[17]
-
"Merciful Turtle King" from Buddhist Jataka tales. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.
-
Warrior in armour, ceiling of Cave 38.[156]
-
Trader making a dedication to the Buddha, Cave 38.[157]
-
Jatakascene on the ceiling: Sabu leading the way of the traders, Kizil Cave 38 "Cave of the Musicians"
-
Kizil Cave 38, ceiling.
Cave 14: Central Asian traders
Cave 14, a small and nearly square room with a vaulted ceiling (2.17x2.17 meters), is considered as later than the "Cave of the Musicians", and dated to the late 4th century CE to early 5th century CE, circa 400 CE, by Rhie.[89][158] The cave has many designs showing Central Asian traders encountering various dangers on their way, such as being lost in the dark, and being saved by the Dragon-King Mabi.[159] Cave 14 is considered as an important historical marker for the dress styles or the armour types worn by some of the figures.[158]
-
Kizil, man in armour, cave 14. 智马舍身救王命故事 "The story of the smart horse who sacrifies himself for the king".
-
Dragon-King Mabi saving traders, Cave 14
-
Deity on elephant, Cave 14
-
Ceiling of Cave 14, traders galloping in the dark (bottom), among vignettes alluding toJatakatales.
Cave 17: Tocharian royalty (circa 500 CE)
Cave 17 (
In Cave 17,
According to Historian of Art Benjamin Rowland, the portraits in Kizil show "that the Tocharians were European rather than Mongol in appearance, with light complexions, blue eyes, and blond or reddish hair, and the costumes of the knights and their ladies have haunting suggestions of the chivalric age of the West".[168] The Chinese named Kuchean kings by adding the prefix "白", meaning "white", probably pointing to the fair complexion of the Kucheans.[169] The Chinese Monk Xuanzang in 645 CE, noted that "they clothe themselves with ornamented garments of silk and embroidery".[170]
This cave also shows Central Asian traders encountering various dangers on their way, such as being lost in the dark, and being saved by the Dragon-King Mabi. Another is the story of the good merchant Sabu (萨缚), who, in order to show the way to a party of 500 merchants lost in the darkness, puts his own arms on fire to use them as torches, and successfully rescues them. The story appears in numerous paintings, in which the merchants are in Central Asian garb and accompanied by camels, and Sab has the attributes of a Bodhisattva.[159]
Cave 17 is contemporary with the earliest decorated Mogao Caves near Dunhuang (caves 268, 272 and 275), which were built and decorated by the Northern Liang between 419 and 439 CE, before the invasion of the Northern Wei. They have many stylistic characteristics in common.[171][172]
-
Plan of Cave 17
-
Two-headed dragon capturing traders, Cave 17
-
Sab leading the way for the 500 traders, Kizil Cave 17.
-
Attendants to the King, Cave 17, Kizil
-
Vairocana Buddha, right corridor, Cave 17
"Cave of the Sixteen sword bearers" (Cave no. 8, 432–538 CE)
(Cave 8, 432–538 CE)
The "
donors".The interpretations of the nationality or ethnicity of the donors have varied. Some authors claim that the donors are indeed
A more recent interpretation is that the sword-bearers are actually
Similar donors can be seen in the Kumtura Caves.
In the "Cave of the Sixteen sword bearers", the murals of the sixteen sword-bearers are located in the lateral left and right corridors around the central pillar, simulating a procession of devotees.[179] The sides of the main room are occupied by panels showing groups around seated Buddhas, while the vault is decorated with a myriad of small Buddhas with emanating flames.[179]
-
Cave of the 16 Sword-bearers, at the west end of the Kizil cave complex
-
Cave of the 16 Sword Bearers (plan)
-
One of the sword-bearers, in right-lapelled caftan.
-
Cave 8, sword-bearer detail
-
Swordbearer and servant
-
Man with a turban, from the side wall of the main cella.
The rear corridor, forming a back-room behind the central pillar, is a barrel-vaulted rectangular room with the two corridors for side access. It was decorated by many spectacular murals, including a large mural showing the
-
Back corridor room of the Cave of the Sixteen Swordbearers, looking towards the main cella (reconstitution).
-
Vault decoration over the mural of "The War of the Relics": on-site photograph in 1907 by Charles Nouette, and removed color panels at the Dalhem Museum.
-
Mural on the inside wall of the rear corridor (β on the plan). The kings around theWar of the relics.
-
Armoured men on horses and elephants, in the rear corridor,War of the Relicsscene (details)
Cave 181: Cave of the High Place in the Small Valley
The Cave of the High Place in the Small Valley (Cave 181), also called the "Highest Cave",[181] is described extensively by Albert Grünwedel, as a particularly interesting cave of the small ravine.[182] He explains that the cave is located high up on the right side of the ravine, which accounts for the fact that its murals have been preserved from the usual iconoclastic vandalism: the faces in particular are well preserved.[182] Also, the murals did not use gold foils for decoration, which reduced the incentive for theft.[182] In his plates, Grünwedel illustrates the murals of the cave, where he names the cave by its official name: Hochliegende Höhle der 2. Schlucht ("Cave of the High Place in the 2nd Valley"),[183] which is the German name for cave 181.[184]
Grünwedel explains that the structure of the cave is extremely rare, as it is not a barrel-vaulted cave: instead, the ceiling has the shape of a tent.[185] The flatness of the sides of the tent-like ceiling is the reason why Grünwedel was able to remove easily most of the ceiling paintings in large panels, something which is impossible with the strongly curved surface of a barrel-vaulted ceiling.[182] The tent-like ceiling is bordered by a row of seven bejewelled princes on each side.[182]
The side wall depict rather tumultuous scenes of the sermon of the Buddha, no fewer than eight of them, with a multitude of attendants in various attitudes and clothing.
A headless wooden statue of a
The murals and the paintings of the ceiling are generally attributed to Cave 181,
-
Flat mural of the right half of the ceiling. It is about 4 cm thick, and weight around 400 kg.Dahlem Museum.[194]
-
Sab leading the way to a trader with a camel.
-
The Buddha and attendants
Period 2 (later phase, 500–700 CE)
The 3rd phase covers a period from the mid-6th century CE to the early 7th century CE. Carbon testing from this period gave dates ranging from 545 +/-75 CE to 685 +/-65 CE (i.e. a maximum range of 470–750 CE).[65] Maya Cave (n.224) is one of the famous caves from this period. Historically, the paintings of this period seem to correspond to the Turk expansion, following their uprising against the Rouran Khaganate in 552 and their subsequent territorial expansion.[47] This can also be seen the style of armour of some of the soldiers in the murals, especially with their pear-shaped helmets.[47]
Vivid colors are used, with great contrast, sometimes quite unnaturally and in a garish manner. A lot of lapis lazuli blue is incorporated in the palette of this artist.[48] Skin color or hair color are often quite unnatural.[48] Backgrounds often have plenty of flowers, fruits or leaves. Ornaments are often extravagant.[48] Again, no East-Asian influence is visible in these paintings.[48]
Māyā Cave (Third complex, cave 224, c.550–600 CE)
Maya Cave (Cave 224) of "III Anlage" is one of the most famous caves of the Third Period. It is dated to circa 550–600 CE, and possibly follows the events of the Turk uprising against the Rouran Khaganate in 552 CE and the subsequent Turk expansion.[195] The helmets of the Knights depicted in some of the murals have been said to be characteristic pear-shaped segmented helmets of the Turkic type.[195][196]
A famous mural of the Mourning of the Buddha at his Cremation appears in Maya Cave (224), from the rear passage of the cave, with various figures in ethnic costumes.[197] Three of the men among the mourners cut their forehead skin or chest with their knives, a practice of self-mutilation practiced by the Scythians.[197] One of the mourners if is thought to be a Turk.[198][199]
-
King Ajatasaru, His Queen, and His Minister Varshakara, Kizil, Maya Cave, (Cave 224).
-
TheWar of the Relics, back corridor of Maya Cave (224).[195]
-
Knights in Kucha, following the events of 552 CE Turk uprising and the subsequent Turk expansion. 2nd half of the 6th century CE. The helmet is a characteristic pear-shaped segmented helmet of the Turkic type.[195][196]
-
Tocharian Prince mourning the Buddha.
-
A monk from "The First Sermon", right corridor painting.
Māyā Cave (Second complex, Cave 205, end 6th century CE)
Maya Cave of "II Anlage" (Cave 205) has been carbon-dated to the 6th–7th century CE.[90] The cave has an inscriptions in Sanskrit mentioning the King of Kucha Anantavarma. He is shown accompanied by two armed attendants.[201]
"When Anantavarma, the great king (maharaja?) of Kucha, saw the letter of Ilmonis, the dedication and the little container of musk, he had honor done to the Buddha."
— Albert Grünwedel translation.[201]
A Prince appears with his wife in the adjacent frescoes, mentioned in a nearby inscription as the future king Tottika and his princess Swayamprabha.[202]
This cave has been rather precisely dated to the end of the 6th century CE, based on the names of the rulers found in the inscriptions, particularly King Tottika and his wife Svayamprabha (a Sanskrit name), who also appear together with Suvarnapushpa (known to have ruled 600–625 CE) and his son Suvarnadeva in the inscriptions on the walls of the Red-dome Cave.[203] The epigraphy also suggest dates later than the Cave of the Painters, with its more ancient inscription about the "painter Tutuka".[204]
-
Presentation of the Parinirvana, Cave 205
-
The Monk Ajnatakaundinya, Maya Cave, Site 2, (Cave 205)
-
Cremation of the Buddha
-
MedidatingMahakasyapa in his patched robe, ceiling detail, Cave 205.[207]
-
The inscription in Sanskrit mentioning Anandavarman
Red-dome Cave 67: more royal dedications
Another nearby cave, the
The Red-dome cave contained a library in which were found very old manuscripts, including one of the oldest known manuscripts in Sanskrit.[33]
-
Plan of the Red-domed Cave A (cave 67)
-
View of the dome and paintings.
-
Princes and Princesses in the Red-domed cave
Cave 69: portrait and dedication of the king of Kucha (securely dated to 600–647 CE)
This period has the only known secure dating in the Kizil Caves: Cave 69 has a painting of a royal Kuchean couple with an inscription in the halo of the King: "Temple Constructed for the Benefit of Suvarnapushpa by His Son", Suvarnapuspa having ruled between 600 and 625, and his three sons died before 647 CE according to Chinese sources.[210][211][212]
When he visited Kucha in 630 CE, the Chinese monk Xuanzang received the favours of Suvarnadeva, the son and successor of Suvarna-puspa, and Hinayana king of Kucha.[213]
Xuanzang described in many details the characteristics of Kucha (屈支国 qūzhīguó, in "大唐西域记" "Tang Dynasty Account of the Western Regions"), and probably visited Kizil:[214][215]
1) "The style of writing is Indian, with some differences"
2) "They clothe themselves with ornamental garments of silk and embroidery. They cut their hair and wear a flowing covering (over their heads)"
3) "The king is of Kuchean ("屈支" qūzhī) race"[216]
4) "There are about one hundred convents (saṅghārāmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the
5) "About 40 li to the north of this desert city there are two convents close together on the slope of a mountain".[101]
These events were soon before the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648 CE.[213]
-
A painting in the left corridor, Cave 69
-
Kuchean devotees, Cave 69, Kizil
-
King Suvarnapuspa and his Queen (龟兹国王与王后供养像) in Cave 69 (dated 600-647 CE per Chinese sources).[217]
Period 3: final narrative evolution
The final stage at Kizil is Period 3 of the Second Indo-Iranian Style.
"Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves" (Cave 123)
The "Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves" (Cave 123) had a type of "central pillar" structure, with niche and circumambulating corridor, but with a very uncharacteristic cubic main cella crowned by a magnificent dome decorated with divinities.[218][221] The main cella forms a square vestibule or main hall (3.42 x 3.42 meters) in front of the pillar forming the back wall, the vestibule being surmounted by a decorated dome. The prototype for the dome decorated with standing Buddhist deities is to be found in Group C of the caves at Bamiyan.[222] It can also be seen in some other caves in the region, such as in Kumtura.
The cave is named after a pattern of "flying geese holding a wreath" (or ring). This pattern is also known from Cave 69, which is dated to 625–647 CE because of the depiction and inscription of a historically identified king. Because of this marker, Cave 123 may be dated to the same period.[223]
The side corridors also have similar Buddha images, but this time with a supplementary decorated band around the Buddha, which is filled with a row of ring-bearing doves, hence the name given to the cave.[224] All Buddha images are surrounded with numerous attendants, Devatas and Vajrapanis.[224]
The paintings were in great part brought to Europe by the fourth Royal prussian expedition to Central Asia of 1913–1914 led by
-
Cave 123, with collapsed front antechamber.[229]
-
Cave 123, as recorded by Charles Nouette in September 1907 (composite)
-
Decorative dome over the niche. "Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves". Ethnological Museum of Berlin
The cave is quite outstanding and refined, either in terms of architecture and decoration, and departs from the mainstream of other caves at Kizil. Marianne Yaldiz has called it "One of Xinjiang's Mysteries".[230] Untypically, the narrative scenes are placed over the entrance, taking second position to the monumental standing Buddhas of the side wall. This is a layout which became popular farther east in Gansu.[220] In a final narrative evolution, the cave magnifies the figure of the Buddha, and gives an ever smaller role to secondary figures and stories.[220]
-
The Buddha with his thousand emanations
-
Entrance wall, Sermon of the Buddha.
-
Bodhisattava over the niche.
-
Cave 123, Dome detail.
-
Cave 123, Dome detail.
Other caves of the third period
The Center Cave (Cave 186), the Third to Last Cave (Cave 184) and the Third Cave from the Front (Cave 187) are also considered as representatives of this third period.[54]
-
Monks and donors, Cave 186
-
Cave 186, group.
-
Cave 186
-
Monks and devotees, Cave 184
-
Devotees, Cave 184
Uighur-Chinese Style (8th–9th century CE)
A 4th period, also described as "The third style" receives strong influence from Chinese painting, a result of the artistic activity and expansion of the
Two caves at Kizil have art of the
In 670 CE, the
In 753 CE, the northern part of the Tarim Basin was taken over by the Turks of the
Texts and inscriptions
Love poem
Most of the texts known from the Tocharians are religious, except for one known love poem in
Translation (English) |
Transliteration | Inscription (Tocharian script) |
---|---|---|
|
|
"Kyzil library"
The Kyzil library had some of "the oldest copies of the Indian theatre known today" written in
13th century Tibetan document about Kizil
The king of Thogar, called Mendre, or "the Persian" (Po-lo-si), or Anandavarma, had images painted in these caves for the followers of Buddha, by the artist and painter Mitradatta, also by Naravahanadatta, who came from a place of worship (Kultort) of the
Niganthas and all followers of Kalachakra and restored all the caves for the worship of Buddha (Buddha-Kultus).— Albert Grünwedel translation of the Tibetan text.[244]
The Japanese Buddhist scholar Teramoto Enga gave a rather different translation:
King Mendre, or the King of Persia (Polosi) or Anandavarma the kings of Tukhara (覩货罗,
Niganthas and restored all the caves for the worship of Buddha.— Teramoto Enga translation of the Tibetan text (fragment).[246]
According to a recent translation by Sam van Schaik, the text should be:
Among the Buddhists there was a Tocharian (
Niganthas) were killed by the followers of Kālacakra, and all of the Buddhist caves were restored.— Translation by Sam van Schaik.[103]
According to
In Tibetan, the country named "Tho-gar" "Thod-kar" corresponds to Tokharistan (ancient Bactria).[248][249][250]
Influences
The Kizil Caves are "the earliest representative grottoes in China".[11] The art of the Kizil Caves is thought to have influenced cave art at Dunhuang, in the Mogao Caves, as early as during the Northern Liang dynasty (421–439 CE), and pictorial arts in China thereafter.[253]
According to historian Daniel C. Waugh:
Given the importance of the Kucha region in
Dunhuang caves (dating from the beginning of the fifth century) show distinctly "Central Asian" features in their painting, stylistically similar to what we find at Kizil. Among the subjects depicted at Kizil and Mogao in strikingly similar fashion is that of the "Cosmological Buddha", whose robe displays images connected with the phenomenal world.[101]
Decay, vandalism, dismantlement, and tourism
Since their construction and decoration between the 4th and 8th centuries CE, the Kizil Caves have suffered numerous periods of religious vandalism and decay.[254]
Western archaeologists orchestrated the massive sampling on the best remaining works of art in the early 20th century.
In more recent times, the Red Guards also contributed to the destruction of the site, and last but not least, the transformation of the site for touristic purposes since 2005 has led to the disfigurement of many caves and the irretrievable loss of archaeological knowledge.[254] Today, none of the caves can be said to have remained entirely intact, although many remain quite impressive.[257][255]
Major Kizil caves
The caves were first named in German by Albert Grünwedel based on various individual characteristics. Many of these names have remained in English. More recently, a numbering system was adopted by the Chinese, generally based on the geographical position of the caves from West to East.
Chinese number/name |
German name[258] | English name | Comments/ stylistic period (Rhie, 2019)[89] |
C14 date (Su Bai, 1983) |
C14 date (Huo and Wang, 1993) |
Location | Cave | Paintings | Plan |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
"Group West of the Valley" (谷西 Guxi, Caves 1–80)
| |||||||||
1 | |||||||||
2 "克孜尔石窟第2窟" 壁炉窟C, D, E |
Höhlengruppe mit der Kamin C, D, E[259] | Cave Group with the Chimney C, D, E | |||||||
3 壁炉窟B |
Höhlengruppe mit der Kamin B[259] | Cave Group with the Chimney B | |||||||
4 壁炉窟A |
Höhlengruppe mit der Kamin A[259] | Cave Group with the Chimney A | 570 CE +-65[90] | ||||||
7 绘画地坪窟 |
Höhle mit dem Freskoboden | Cave with the Fresco floor | |||||||
8 十六带剑者窟 |
Höhle der sechzehn Schwertträgger[260] | Cave of the Sixteen Swordbearers | 432–538 CE[173][60] | 640 CE +38-50[90] | |||||
13 | Cave 13 | ||||||||
14 | Cave 14[89] | Mid to late 4th century.[158] | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | ||||||
17 菩萨顶窟 |
Höhle mit dem Bodhisattvagewölbe[261] Also: Höhle mit dem Bodhisattva-Plafond |
Cave of the Bodhisattva Vault | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | 465 CE +-65[90] | |||||
25, 25A, 25B, 25C 龛窟 | Niche caves | Small early caves, roughly cubic in shape, and about 1x1x1 meters in size | |||||||
27 壁龛窟 |
Nischenhöhle[262] | Cave of the Niche | |||||||
30 | Cave 30 | ||||||||
33 | Cave 33 | ||||||||
34 思惟日神窟 |
Höhle mit dem meditierenden sonnengott | Cave with meditating Sun God[158] | Circa 400 CE.[165] | ||||||
36, 37 禅房B, D |
Das Sogenannte Kloster[263] /Kloster mit der Treppe, B und A.[184] |
The So-called Cloister Cave | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | ||||||
38 伎乐窟 |
Höhle mit dem Musikerchor[264] | Cave of the Musicians | Mid 4th century CE. Possibly the earliest "central pillar" cave.[154] | 310 CE +-80[47][65][74] | mid 4th-end 5th century.[90] | ||||
39 | Cave 39, a square cave | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | |||||||
40 | Cave 40, a vihara cave, without decoration
|
||||||||
41, 42, 43 | |||||||||
44, 45, 46, 46a | Storage caves.[265] | ||||||||
47 | Kultstatten | Colossal Image Cave (Cave 47)[154] | A colossal standing Buddha, about 10 meters tall, used to stand in front of the "central pillar".[266] Six storeys of decorations adorned the side walls (the first storey with stucco statues, and the other storeys with paintings).[266] The cave has a large backroom with a Parinirvana scene.[266] Probably the oldest "colossal image cave" at Kizil.[266] 310 CE +-80 to 350 CE +-60.[7] | 350 CE +/-60.[90] | |||||
48 | Cave 48[267] | Another early "colossal image cave", but smaller than Cave 47. 350-400 CE.[268] | 350 CE +/-60.[90] | ||||||
? | Bibliothek | Library | |||||||
58 戴盔者窟 |
Höhle der Behelmten | Cave of the Helmetted Man | |||||||
60 最大窟 |
Grösste Höhle | Largest Cave (Cave 60) | 422–529 CE[101] | ||||||
最大窟上方的窟 | Cave above the largest cave | ||||||||
63 迦叶窟 |
Kāśiapa Höhle[269] | Kāśiapa Cave | |||||||
66 红穹窿顶窟B |
Rotkuppelhöhle B[270] | Red-domed Cave B | Vihara living space
|
||||||
67 红色穹窿顶窟A |
Rotkuppelhöhle A[270] | Red-domed Cave A | Inscriptions mentioning a list of donors including a queen and six kings including Suvarnapuspa (ruled 600–625 CE) and his son Suvarnadeva.[202]
|
||||||
新 1 (克孜尔石窟新1窟) |
New cave 1 (between caves 68 and 69).[271] | ||||||||
69 | Cave 69 | Mural of King Suvarnapusa and his Queen, with inscription "Temple Constructed for the Benefit of Suvarnapousa by His Son", datable to 600–647 CE since the king is known and dated by Chinese sources.[272] | |||||||
70 | Cave 70 | A "Colossal image cave" | |||||||
76 孔雀窟 |
Pfauenhöhle[88] | Peacock Cave | Circa 400 CE.[89] | mid 4th-end 5th century CE.[90] | |||||
77 塑像群窟 |
Höhle der Statuen[273] also Figuren Höhle[274] |
Cave of the Statues[275] | 375-400 CE.[121] | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | 3rd-mid 4th century.[90] | ||||
80 地狱油锅窟 |
Höllentopfthöhle | Hell's Pot Cave | 310 CE +-80 to 350 CE +-60.[7] | ||||||
"Group Inside the Valley" (谷内 Gunei, Caves 81–135)
| |||||||||
81 | Cave 81 | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | |||||||
82 宝藏窟D, E |
Schatzhöhle D, E | Treasure Caves D, E | 300–350 CE. An undecorated vihara.[73]
|
||||||
83 财宝窟C |
Schatzhöhle C | Cave 83 (Treasure Cave C) | 300–350 CE. One of the oldest decorated caves at Kizil.[276] | mid 4th-end 5th century CE.[90] | |||||
84 财宝窟B |
Schatzhöhle B | Cave 84 (Treasure Cave B) | 300–350 CE. One of the oldest decorated caves at Kizil.[276] | mid 4th-end 5th century CE.[90] | |||||
85 宝藏窟A |
Schatzhöhle A | Treasure Cave A | 300–350 CE.[73] Small barrel-vaulted cave of the 2nd period.[277] | ||||||
92 雌猴窟 |
Höhle mit der Äffin | Cave of the Female Ape | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | 3rd-mid 4th century.[90] | |||||
99 | 99 | ||||||||
100 | 100 | ||||||||
104 | Cave 104 | ||||||||
110 阶梯窟 |
Treppenhöhle | Cave with the Steps (Cave 110) | The most complete set of murals about the life of the Buddha.[278] | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | |||||
114 法轮窟 |
Höhle mit dem Gebetmühle[279] | Cave with the Prayer Wheel (Cave 114)[165] | Circa 400 CE.[280] | 355 CE (+50/-100)[280] | |||||
116 壁画重层窟旁小窟 |
Kleine Höhle neben der übermalten Höhle | Small Cave near the Overpainted Cave | |||||||
117 壁画重层窟 |
Übermalte Höhle | Overpainted Cave | 3rd-mid 4th century.[90] | ||||||
118 海马窟 |
Hippokampen Höhle[75] | Cave of the Hippocampi[281] | 300-350 CE.[276] | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | 3rd-mid 4th century CE. One of the oldest decorated caves at Kizil.[90] | ||||
123 衔环飞鸽窟 |
Höhle mit dem ringtragenden Tauben (Höhle 24)[282] | Cave of the Ring-bearing Doves | 5th–6th century per Dahlem Museum.[221]
|
620 CE +60-80[90] | |||||
129 小穹窿顶窟 |
Kleine Kuppelhöhle (Höhle 23) | Small Domed Cave | |||||||
135 | 135 | Cave with cupola. Half of the dome has now crumbled away.[283] | |||||||
"Group East of the Valley" (谷东 Gudong, Caves 136–201)
| |||||||||
136 | Cave 136 | A "colossal image cave" | |||||||
139 | Cave 139 | A "colossal image cave" similar to Cave 77.[284][285] | |||||||
146 | Cave 146 | A "colossal image cave".[4] | |||||||
149 A 印度瘤牛车窟 |
Höhle mit dem Zebuwagen[286] | Cave of the Zebu Cart (149 A, now lost)[287] | |||||||
154 | 154 | A "colossal image cave", similar to cave 139.[285] | |||||||
163 | 163 | ||||||||
165–168 套头顶窟5, 4, 3, 2 |
Casetten Höhle 5, 4, 3, 2 | Corbelled Ceiling [Laternendecke ceiling] Caves 5, 4, 3, 2 | |||||||
171 | Höhle über Kassettenhöhlen[8] | Cave over the Cave with Corbelled Ceiling (171) | Barrel-vaulted central pillar cave, with many remaining paintings. | 395 CE +-65 to 465 CE +-65.[7] | mid 4th-end 5th century CE.[90] | ||||
172 | |||||||||
Small Ravine (Caves 175–191) Kleine Schlucht
| |||||||||
175 诱惑窟 |
Versuchungs Höhle | Cave of the Temptation (175) | Barrel-vaulted central-pillar cave. | ||||||
176 倒数第2窟 |
Zweirletzte Höhle | Second Cave from the Left | |||||||
177 第4窟 |
Höhle 4 | Cave 4 | A minuscule corridor-like cave with a side passage to Cave 178 | ||||||
178 峡谷窟 |
Schlucht Höhle (3. Höhle) | Ravine Cave (Cave 178) | Barrel-vaulted central-pillar cave with antechamber. By far the largest cave of the group. This cave is often mistakenly attributed the paintings of cave 181.[288] | 695 CE +110-95[90] | |||||
179 日本人窟/第2窟 |
Japaner Höhle (2. Höhle) | Japanese Cave (Cave 179) | Barrel-vaulted central-pillar cave. So named by Grünwedel because the exploration team of Count Otani worked in this cave.
|
||||||
180 | |||||||||
181[289] 高位窟 |
Hochliegende Höhle [der 2. Schlucht][258] | Cave of the High Place [in the small valley] | "Tent"-vaulted central pillar cave: "The ceiling of the cella is of a very rare type: it is not barrel-vaulted, but rising like a tent."[290] The paintings of this cave, removed to Germany by Grünwedel, are often mistakenly attributed to Cave 178.[288] |
545 CE +-75 to 685 CE +-65.[7] | |||||
182 | |||||||||
183 | Small 1x1 meters niche cave. | ||||||||
184 倒数第3窟 |
Drittletzte Höhle | Third to Last Cave (Cave 184) | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | ||||||
185 附属小窟 |
Kleiner Temple nebenan | Small temple next door | A small 1x1 meters niche cave. | ||||||
186 中心窟 |
Mittlere Höhle | Center Cave (Middle Cave) | |||||||
187 | Small 1x1 meter meditation hole | ||||||||
188 正数第3窟/十二立佛窟 |
12 Buddha Höhle (3. Höhle von vorn)[258] | Buddha Cave (Third Cave from the Front, Cave 188). | Barrel-vaulted square cave with rows of standing Buddhas. | ||||||
189 正数第2窟 |
2. Höhle von vorn | Second Cave from the Front | |||||||
190 | |||||||||
191 | |||||||||
193 龙王窟 |
Nāgarāja Höhle | Nāgarāja Cave | |||||||
198 魔鬼窟C |
Teufelshöhle mit Annexen C[291] | Cave of the Devil with Annex C (Cave 198) | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | ||||||
198 側廊 妖魔窟B |
Teufelshöhle mit Annexen B[291] | Cave of the Devil with Annex B (198 side corridor) | |||||||
199 魔鬼窟B |
Teufelshöhle mit Annexen A[292] | Cave of the Devil with Annex A (Cave 199) | |||||||
"Group at the Back of the Mountain" (后山 Houshan, Caves 202–231)
| |||||||||
203 | 2.Anlage Höhle 21 | 203 | Living quarter, with fireplace. | ||||||
204 | 2.Anlage Höhle 20 | 204 | |||||||
205 2区佛母窟 |
Höhle mit der Maya, 2. Anlage (Höhle 19)[293] | Maya Cave of 2nd Anlage (Cave 205) | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | ||||||
206 洗足窟 |
Höhle mit der Fusswaschung (Höhle 18)[294] | Foot-washing Cave (Cave 206) | 640 CE +55-45[90] | ||||||
207 画家窟 |
Höhle der Maler (Höhle 17)[295] | Cave of the Painters (Cave 207) | 480–550 CE.[51][115] | 630 CE +65-75[90] | |||||
212 航海窟 |
Höhle der Seereise (Höhle 11) | Cave of the Seafarers (Cave 212) | Early 5th century CE.[89] | 561–637 CE | 6th–7th century CE.[90] | ||||
216 | |||||||||
219 未生怨窟 |
Ajātaśatru-Höhle (Höhle 1) | Ajātaśatru Cave (Cave 219) | |||||||
222 | Schakalshöhle (Höhle 7) | Cave of the Jackals (Cave 7) | |||||||
223 | Höhle 6[296][199] | Cave 6[198] | |||||||
224 3区佛母窟 |
Höhle mit der Maya, 3. Anlage (Höhle 5)[297] | Maya Cave of 3rd Anlage (Cave 224) | 440 CE +95-60.[90] | ||||||
225 第4窟 |
Höhle 4 | Cave 4 | |||||||
227 饿鬼窟 |
Pretahöhle (Höhle 3) | Preta Cave (Cave 3) | Cave with corbelled ceiling, 7th century CE.[298] | ||||||
"Group East of the Valley (2nd part)" (谷东 Gudong, Caves 232–235)
| |||||||||
232–235 | 232–235 | A few later caves at the extreme east of the main mountain face (containing caves 1–201) | |||||||
Source: Rhie, Marylin Martin (15 July 2019). Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 2 The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia (2 vols). BRILL. p. 649. ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4 .
|
See also
- Ah-ai Grotto
- Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves
- Kumtura Thousand Buddha Caves
- Mogao Caves
- Tianlongshan Grottoes
- Ajanta Caves
- Major National Historical and Cultural Sites (Xinjiang)
- Serindian art
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f g Manko Namba Walter (October 1998). "Tokharian Buddhism in Kucha: Buddhism of Indo-European Centum Speakers in Chinese Turkestan before the 10th Century C.E" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (85).
- ^ "Kezil Thousand-Buddha Grottoes". xinjiang.gov. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
- ^ a b "Kizil Thousand-Buddha Cave". Retrieved 2007-08-05.
- ^ ISBN 978-7-5314-6376-4.
- ^ a b Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 154.
- ^ "Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 17 Apr 2021.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b "SMB-digital Höhlenansicht mit Wandmalerei". www.smb-digital.de.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
- ^ JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ a b c Li, Zuixiong (2010). "Deterioration and Treatment of Wall Paintings in Grottoes along the Silk Road in China and Related Conservation Efforts" in Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road (PDF). Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. p. 49.
- ^ JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ "Caves as Canvas: Hidden Images of Worship Along the Ancient Silk Road". Sackler Gallery. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
- ^ a b Daniel C. Waugh. "Kucha and the Kizil Caves". Silk Road Seattle. University of Washington.
- ^ a b c Makiko Onishi, Asanobu Kitamoto. "The Transmission of Buddhist Culture: The Kizil Grottoes and the Great Translator Kumārajīva".
- JSTOR 20111218.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ "Caves as Canvas: Hidden Images of Worship Along the Ancient Silk Road – Architecture, Decoration, and Function". Sackler Gallery. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c Zin, Monika (2013). "Buddhist Narrative Depictions in Andhra, Gandhara and Kucha – Similarities and Differences that Favour a Theory about a Lost a Gandharan School of Painting" in "Buddhism and Art in Gandhara and Kucha" (PDF). Ryokoku University.
- ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ISBN 978-7-5085-0706-4.
- ^ "SMB-digital Höhlenansicht mit Wandmalereien". www.smb-digital.de.
- ^ "俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫俄国". www.sohu.com.
- ^ "It is the merit of Kenyu Hori and Tesshin Watanabe to have discovered and first examined the cave complex of Kizil. Unfortunately, the efforts and findings of this examination have been destroyed by an earthquake that scared away the Japanese scholars, which enabled the Germans to uncover, carry away and come out with the treasures of this site a short while afterwards (Klimkeit, 1988, 38)" in Fellner, Hannes A., University of Vienna. The Expeditions to Tocharistan (PDF). p. 25, note 39.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "IDP JAPANESE COLLECTIONS". idp.bl.uk. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-01-28.
- ^ S2CID 219398072.
- ^ a b c d e Turfan Expedition. Encyclopedia Iranica.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 8 (Color Image). p. 2.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert (1912). Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 163 (Color Image). pp. 156–157.
- ^ a b Fellner, Hannes A., University of Vienna. The Expeditions to Tocharistan (PDF). p. 28.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ Pelliot, Paul Emile (1909). Trois Ans dans la haute Asie : vol.1 / Page 13 (Color Image). pp. 7–8.
- ^ "Mission Paul Pelliot 1906–1908. Entre le 1/9/1907 et le 3/9/1907" in "Réunion des Musées Nationaux-Grand Palais – Search Result". www.photo.rmn.fr.
- ^ Pelliot, Paul. Trois Ans dans la haute Asie. p. 10.
- ^ Von Le Coq, Albert. Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien : vol.4.
- ^ JSTOR 20111218.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c d Casalini, Alice (2015). Towards a new approach to the study of the Buddhist rock monasteries of Kuča (Xinjiang) (PDF). p. 69.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ISBN 978-81-85026-85-5.
- ^ "Caves as Canvas: Hidden Images of Worship Along the Ancient Silk Road – The Rediscovery of Qizil". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
- ^ Kizil Thousand-Buddha Caves: Valuable Record of Buddhism Culture in Xinjiang Archived 2012-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g Kubik, Adam (2008). "The Kizil Caves as an terminus post quem of the Central and Western Asiatic pear-shape spangenhelm type helmets The David Collection helmet and its place in the evolution of multisegmented dome helmets, Historia i Świat nr 7/2018, 141–156". Histïria I Swiat. 7: 143–144.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hertel, Herbert (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. pp. 48–49.
- ^ Ilyasov, Jangar (2001). "The Hephthalite Terracotta // Silk Road Art and Archaeology. Vol. 7. Kamakura, 2001, 187–200". Silk Road Art and Archaeology: 187–197.
- ^ "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xiv. E. Iranian Art – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Kageyama, Etsuko (2016). "Change of suspension systems of daggers and swords in eastern Eurasia: Its relation to the Hephthalite occupation of Central Asia" (PDF). ZINBUN. 46: 200–202.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VII. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 24–29.
- ^ "For generally accepted styles of Kucha paintings, cf. WALDSCHMIDT in LE COQ/WALDSCHMIDT 1933: 24–31." in Zin, Monika (2015). "The Case of the "Repainted Cave" (Kizil, Cave 117)" (PDF). Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift. 19: 19, note 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-08-31. Retrieved 2021-02-08.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ Le Coq, Albert von. Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien : vol.5. p. 10.
- ^ "A dictionary of Tocharian B". www.win.tue.nl.
- ^ In Ashokan Brahmi: 𑀲𑁂𑀧𑀜𑀓𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀲𑀡𑁆𑀓𑁂𑀢𑀯𑀝𑁆𑀲𑁂 𑀱𑀭𑁆𑀲 𑀧𑀧𑁃𑀬𑁆𑀓𑁅
- ^ a b c d Waugh (Historian, University of Washington), Daniel C. "MIA Berlin: Turfan Collection: Kizil". depts.washington.edu.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ^ Beckwith 2009, p. xix ff.
- ^ a b Grousset 1970, p. 48.
- ^ a b Grousset 1970, p. 49.
- ^ JSTOR 20111218.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ "It was to the Bamian frescoes that the early style of the frescoes of Kizil -somewhat west of Kucha- was related" in Grousset 1970, p. 51
- ^ a b Kageyama quoting the research of S. Hiyama, “Study on the first-style murals of Kucha: analysis of some motifs related to the Hephthalite's period”, in Kageyama, Etsuko (2016). "Change of suspension systems of daggers and swords in eastern Eurasia: Its relation to the Hephthalite occupation of Central Asia" (PDF). ZINBUN. 46: 200.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Buddhist Art. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
- ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 108 (Color Image). pp. 102 ff.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5.
- ^ "俗有城郭,其城三重,中有佛塔廟千所" in the account of Kucha (龜茲國) in "晉書/卷097". zh.wikisource.org.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ "男女皆翦發垂項" "Men and women all cut their hair straight to the nuque" in the account of Kucha (龜茲國) in "晉書/卷097". zh.wikisource.org.
- ^ "The front figurine is a kneeling monk (Fig. 233) in a red, green-folded robe with short black shoes, of white, ocher-yellow-shaded body color and ocher-shorn hair. In front of him is a green vessel in the shape of a lotâ. With the left hand the monk has stuck a thick stick, a little more than arm's length, into the vessel from above and hits the stick with a small black-painted hammer to knock the vessel round. It seems that this shows that the monk pictured made and donated the sacrificial tools for our cave. Behind this monk was a kneeling painter in the same costume as the donor figures on the other side. Only remains of his head have survived." Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 108 (Color Image). pp. 102 ff.
- ^ a b c Rao, Heimo and Upadhyaya (1976). Reflections On Indian Art. pp. 142–143.
- ISBN 978-3-8258-5134-7.
- ^ In Chinese, 优陀羡王姻缘故事 "Story of the wedding of king Youtuoxian". The story appears in the Miscellaneous Treasures Sutra 杂宝藏经 (一一六) in "杂宝藏经卷第10优陀羡王缘(116)". sutra.foz.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-02-05. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 93 (Color Image). pp. 87 ff.
- ^ a b Reconstitution in Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha. pp. 251 ff., also black and white 1912 photograph.
- ^ a b Zin, Monika. "INDO-ASIATISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT – PDF Kostenfreier Download". docplayer.org: 23.
- ^ For a broadly similar rendering of the volume of the cave, see Miyaji, Akira (2011). "New Research on the Expeditions of Count Otani". Research Center for Buddhist Cultures in Asia: 49, image 1.
- ^ a b Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 87.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 156.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Vignato, Giuseppe (2016). "Monastic Fingerprints – Tracing Ritual Practice in the Rock Monastery of Qizil through Archaeological Evidence" (PDF). Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrif: 22–38.
- ^ Reconstitution in Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha. pp. 251 ff.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c d Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha. pp. II 10 – II 13.
- ^ "Door wall. At the bottom of W. 4 (R.) you can see three praying monks, who were inscribed with Brâhmî inscriptions, on the corresponding point of the wall section L. also three monks and one kneeling in front of them. Donor, who holds out a basket of flowers, also here were small labels with Brahmî inscriptions." in Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 97 (Color Image). p. 91.
- ^ Hiyama, Satomi (January 2017). "Portrait of the Royal Patronage in Kizil Cave 60 (Größte Höhle)". Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift: 40, note 7.
- ^ a b c "In Kuchean iconographical convention, cartouches do not appear in narrative representations, but are most typically appended to the portraits of actual donors." in Hiyama, Satomi (January 2017). "Portrait of the Royal Patronage in Kizil Cave 60 (Größte Höhle)". Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift: 39.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Waugh, Daniel (Historian, University of Washington). "Kizil". depts.washington.edu. Washington University. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Zin, Monika. "Sanskrit literature and the Indian pictorial tradition in the paintings of Kucha" (PDF): 288. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2020-12-16.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ S2CID 226673648.
- ^ CHANG, YUAN ZANG. THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY CHINESE BUDDHA FIGURES (PDF). p. 70, Note 70 referencing Li Ruizhe, Cave Temple in Kucha (《龟兹石窟寺》), China Social Sciences Press, December 2015, p. 11.
- ISBN 9780913215500.
- ^ Grunwedel, Albert. Alt-Kutscha : vol.1. p. II.31.
- S2CID 226673648.
- ^ Rao, Heimo and Upadhyaya (1976). Reflections On Indian Art. p. 44.
- ^ Rao, Heimo and Upadhyaya (1976). Reflections On Indian Art. pp. 144 ff.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Hiyama, Satomi (2018). "Untangling the textiles in the murals" (PDF). Journal of World Buddhist Cultures: 65, note 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-19. Retrieved 2021-02-15.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c "In the corner of the outside between the first statue and doorway, you can see the picture of a painter without a head, who is holding a bowl of paint. He wears a costume that exactly matches that of the painter pictures in the "Cave of the Painters"." in Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 99 (Color Image). p. 93.
- ^ a b c d Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). "THE HEPHTHALITES: ICONOGRAPHICAL MATERIALS" (PDF). Tyragetia. 8: 329.
- ^ "俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫". www.sohu.com.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11499-9.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 97 (Color Image). pp. 91–92.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b Hertel, Herbert (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. pp. 70–72.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Grünwedel, Albert (1912). Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 98 (Color Image). pp. 92–93.
- ^ "These sermon images are of pure Gandhara style. In their design and in their details they are closely related to the pictures to be treated below in Hohle der Maler; indeed, they seem to have been executed by the same hand." Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 98 (Color Image). pp. 92–93.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ References BDce-695, MIK III 9044 "俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫". www.sohu.com.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien : vol.1 / Page 29 (Color Image). p. 25.
- ^ a b c Grünwedel, Albert (1912). Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 97 (Color Image). pp. 91–95.
- ^ a b 世界佛教美術圖說大辭典. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 99 (Color Image). p. 93.
- ^ "世界佛教美術圖說大辭典". arts.fgs.org.tw. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-03680-9.
- ^ For photographs of the destructions see: "西方探险队揭取了哪些克孜尔壁画——海外克孜尔壁画现状调查_古代艺术_澎湃新闻-The Paper". www.thepaper.cn.
- ISBN 978-90-04-27939-1.
- ^ a b c d e Hertel, Herbert (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. pp. 72–74.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-1665-7.
- ^ a b The Tocharian equivalent would be of the form te Puñakāme paiyka "Puñakāme painted this" in "A dictionary of Tocharian B, "pik-" entry". www.win.tue.nl.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-7392-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-1208-6.
- ^ About the painting in the Cave of the Statues: "These sermon images are of pure Gandhara style. In their design and in their details they are closely related to the pictures to be treated below in Hohle der Maler; indeed, they seem to have been executed by the same hand." Grunwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 98 (Color Image). pp. 92–93.
- ^ Grousset 1970, p. 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 162 (Color Image). pp. 156 ff.
- ^ Azarpay, Guitty (1981). Sogdian Painting. p. 50.
- ^ Hertel, Herbert (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. pp. 55–56.
- ^ Rowland, Benjamin (1970). The Art of Central Asia. p. 104. Archived from the original on 2023-01-15. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 162 (Color Image). p. 156.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hiyama, Satomi (2016). "Portrait of the Royal Patronage in Kizil Cave 60 (Größte Höhle)". Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift. 20/21: 39–50.
- ISBN 978-0-8248-7798-9.
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ^ "Sogdiana under its nomadic elites became the principal center of agricultural wealth and population in Central Asia." and paragraph on "The Shift of the Trade Routes" in Vaissière, Etienne de la (212). "Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity: 5 Central Asia and the Silk Road". In S. Johnson (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, P. 142-169. Oxford University Press: 144–160.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- JSTOR 20111218.
- S2CID 192452454.
- JSTOR 3249912.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ a b "鉴赏|龟兹石窟壁画中的善与爱:看燃臂引路、杀生济众等故事_古代艺术_澎湃新闻-The Paper". www.thepaper.cn (新疆龟兹研究院). 2020.
- ^ a b References BDce-888、889, MIK III 8875, now in the Hermitage Museum."俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫". www.sohu.com (in Chinese).
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-07877-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-85026-85-5. "The panel of Tocharian donors and Buddhist monks , which was at the MIK ( MIK 8875 ) disappeared during World War II and was discovered by Yaldiz in 2002 in the Hermitage Museum" page 65,note 30
- ^ a b c d e f g Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VI. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 68–70.
- ^ a b Grunwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 65 (Color Image). p. 59.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Original descriptions only say the mural came from "the 5th cave east of the Cave of the Sixteen Swordbearers" in Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VI. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] p. 68., which could technically be Cave 13, but now generally thought to be Cave 17
- ^ Encyclopedia of Buddhist Art. Kaohsiung: Fo Guang Shan Board. Archived from the original on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
- ^ Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 155.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5.
- ^ Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 151.
- ISBN 978-3-8258-5134-7.
- ISBN 978-1-60606-445-0.
- ^ JSTOR 24049243.
- ^ a b c Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). "THE HEPHTHALITES: ICONOGRAPHICAL MATERIALS" (PDF). Tyragetia. 8: 324.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87099-300-8.
- ^ "The Hephthalites had already established their sway over the people in the valley of the Oxus in the middle of the 5th century A.D. They had attained the apogic of their power in the period 502–556 A.D. when they carried their victorious armies not only to Persia but also to Kapisa, Karasahr, Kucha, Kashgar, Bai, Khoten, etc. Their territory comprised also Tash-Kourgane, Wakhan, Zebak, the valley of Chitral and Gandhara and their capital was situated at Bamian" in Wang, Bangwei; Sen, Tansen (2012). "India and China: Interactions through Buddhism and Diplomacy: A Collection of Essays by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi": 105. )
- ISBN 978-1-884446-00-9.
- ISBN 9781474400305.
- ^ a b c Grünwedel, Albert. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 56 (Color Image). pp. 50–58.
- ^ For a recent photograph of the cave :第8窟 in "公众教育". www.sinowh.org.cn. and "丝绸之路上的克孜尔石窟_洞窟". www.sohu.com.
- ISBN 978-90-04-12848-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha : vol.1 / Page 167 (Color Image). pp. 167 ff.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha : vol.1 / Page 263 (Color Image).
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-07877-2.
- ^ "Die Decke ist nämlich kein Tonnengewölbe, sondern zeltförmig ansteigend" ie "The ceiling is not a barrel vault, but rather rising like a tent" in Grünwedel, Albert. Alt-Kutscha : vol.1 / Page 167 (Color Image). p. 167.
- ^ Zin, Monika (2006). "Two Rocks in the Buddha's Life Story" (PDF). East and West. 56 (4): 356.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Zin, Monika (2006). "About Two Rocks in the Buddha's Life Story" (PDF). East and West. 56 (4): 336.
- ^ 世界佛教美術圖說大辭典, Cave 181. Archived from the original on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
- ^ 赵 (Zhao), 莉 (2009). "克孜尔石窟部分流失壁画原位考证与复原_参考网". 中国文化遗产.
- ^ Von Le Coq, Albert. Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien : vol.4 / Page 51 (Color Image). pp. 17–18.
- ISBN 9787101032017.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ Weight and thickness given for the other side, by the Dahlem Museum "SMB-digital Vorgeburtenszenen (Jatakas) Buddhas". www.smb-digital.de.
- ^ a b c d Kubik, Adam (2018). "The Kizil Caves as an terminus post quem of the Central and Western Asiatic pear-shape spangenhelm type helmets The David Collection helmet and its place in the evolution of multisegmented dome helmets, Historia i Świat nr 7/2018, 141–156". Historia i Swiat. 7: 145–148.
- ^ a b G, Reza Karamian; Farrokh, Kaveh; Syvänne, Ilkka; Kubik, Adam; Czerwieniec-Ivasyk, Marta; Maksymiuk, Katarzyna. Crowns, hats, turbans and helmets The headgear in Iranian history volume I: Pre-Islamic Period Edited by Katarzyna Maksymiuk & Gholamreza Karamian Siedlce-Tehran 2017. pp. 1157–1163, 1247.
- ^ a b Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst. Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VI. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 80–81.
- ^ a b c Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2009). "Early Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art Second half of the 6th – first half of the 8th cc. (Images of 'Others')". Transoxiana. 14: Fig.16.
- ^ a b c Grünwedel, Albert (1912). Altbuddhistische Kultstätten Chinesisch Turkistan. p. 180.
- ^ Yatsenko, Sergey (2013). "Some Observations on Depictions of Early Turkic Costume (The Silk Road, 11, 2013)". The Silk Road. 11: 72, image 7.3.
- ^ a b Grünwedel translates it "When Anantavarma, the great king of Kucha, saw the letter of Ilmonis, the dedication and the little container of musk, he had honor done to the Buddha." in German in Grünwedel, Albert. Alt-Kutscha archäologische und religionsgeschichtliche Forschungen an Tempera-Gemälden aus buddhistischen Höhlen der ersten acht Jahrhunderte nach Christi Geburt. p. 41.
- ^ JSTOR 3249912.
- ^ JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ a b Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst. Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VII. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 28–33.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert. Alt-Kutscha. p. 41 (I29).
- ^ 国王名为托提卡,王后名斯瓦扬普拉芭 in 霍, 旭初 (2014). 克孜尔石窟艺术模式及其对外影响, in English in Turfan revisited: the first century of research into the arts and cultures of the Silk Road. Berlin: Reimer.
- ^ Hiyama, Satomi (2018). "Untangling the textiles in the murals" (PDF). Journal of World Buddhist Cultures: 64, note 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-19. Retrieved 2021-02-15.
- ISBN 978-0-7618-1671-3.
- ^ Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst. Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VII. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] p. 27.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ The inscription is translated in Chinese “儿子为苏伐那·勃驶功德造寺” in 霍, 旭初 (2014). 克孜尔石窟艺术模式及其对外影响, in English in Turfan revisited: the first century of research into the arts and cultures of the Silk Road. Berlin: Reimer.
- ^ Zhu, Tianshu (2007). BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS: EMANATORS AND EMANATED BEINGS IN THE BUDDHIST ART OF GANDHĀRA, CENTRAL ASIA, AND CHINA. p. 399.
- ^ a b Grousset 1970, p. 99.
- ISBN 978-0-415-24469-5., also available in: "Kingdom of K'iu-chi (Kucha or Kuche) [Chapter 2]". www.wisdomlib.org. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
- ^ ""屈支国" in 大唐西域记/01 – 维基文库,自由的图书馆". zh.m.wikisource.org. Wikisource.
- ^ "王屈支种也" in ""屈支国" in 大唐西域记/01 – 维基文库,自由的图书馆". zh.m.wikisource.org. Wikisource.
- ^ Zhu, Tianshu (2007). BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS: EMANATORS AND EMANATED BEINGS IN THE BUDDHIST ART OF GANDHĀRA, CENTRAL ASIA, AND CHINA. p. 439.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-27939-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-27939-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4617-4027-8.
- ^ a b "Dalhem Museum Notice". 12 April 2011.
- ^ Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 167.
- ^ Zhu, Tianshu (2007). "BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS: EMANATORS AND EMANATED BEINGS IN THE BUDDHIST ART OF GANDHĀRA, CENTRAL ASIA, AND CHINA".
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(help) - ^ ISBN 978-90-04-27939-1.
- ^ "Dalhem Museum Notice". 12 April 2011.
- ^ "Images of reconstructed Cave 123 in 1928".
- ^ 世界佛教美術圖說大辭典. Archived from the original on 2021-02-03. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
- ^ 世界佛教美術圖說大辭典. Archived from the original on 2021-02-09. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
- ^ Reference: Fig 7 ("Cave 24") and text in the note of the previous page Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VII. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 17–18.
- ^ "One of Xinjiang's Mysteries: Cave 123 in Kizil, the Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves." by Marianne Yaldiz in Silk Road Art and Archaeology, 6, 1999/2000, 245–251
- S2CID 192452454.
- ^ a b Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 169.
- ^ Grousset 1970, p. 100.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ a b c d Rowland, Benjamin (1975). The art of Central Asia. New York, Crown. p. 221.
- ^ Grousset 1970, p. 52.
- ^ Carling, Gerd (Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen). "Tocharian (p.16)" (PDF).
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ ISBN 978-87-635-4066-7.
- ^ a b Chrestomathie tokharienne: Textes et grammaire, Georges-Jean Pinault. Peeters, 2008.
- ^ "Language Log » Tocharian love poem".
- ^ World Atlas of Poetic Traditions: Tocharian
- JSTOR 3249912.
- S2CID 226673648.
- ^ Grünwedel, Albert (1920). Alt-Kutscha. p. I10.
- ISBN 978-7-999099-49-9.
- ^ Approximate translation (expertise welcome) from Teramoto, Enga (1921). "The Buddhism of the Country of Shambhala according to the inscriptions in the caves of Old Kucha "古龟兹国洞窟壁文とシャンバラ国佛教"" (PDF). Buddhist Studies "佛教研究". Buddhist research center of Otani University 大谷大學佛教研究會.
- ^ Hirayama, Satomi (2010). "The wall painting of Kizil Cave 118: the story of king Mandhatr as a new identification". Journal of the Japan Art History Society. 59.
- ^ "The population was called by the Greeks Tokharoi, Thaguroi; by the Romans Tochar; or Thogarii (in Sanskrit, Tukhara; in Tibetan, Thod-kar or Tho-gar; in Khotanese, Ttaugara; in Uigurian, Twghry; in Armenian, T'ukri-k'" in Diringer, David (1948). Alphabet A Key To The History Of Mankind. p. 348.
- ISBN 978-90-04-25530-2.
- JSTOR 3488482.
- ^ JSTOR 4629399.
- ^ "Mogao Cave 254 莫高第254号窟 · A. Stories Behind The Dunhuang Caves 敦煌石窟背后的故事 · UW Dunhuang Project: Exhibitions". dunhuang.ds.lib.uw.edu. University of Washington.
- JSTOR 20111218.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-85026-85-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-226-49308-4.
- ^ "俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫". www.sohu.com (in Chinese).
- ISBN 978-962-209-125-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-07877-2.
- ^ a b c Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 43.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 50.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 59.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 66 (Color Image). pp. 60 ff.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 68 (Color Image). p. 62.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 63.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 85 (Color Image). pp. 79 ff.
- ^ a b Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 82.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 91.
- ^ Von Le Coq, Albert. Auf Hellas Spuren in Ostturkistan : vol.1 / Page 175 (Color Image). p. Plate 39.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ "中国佛教协会官方网-克孜尔石窟第85窟 主室券顶及东壁 壁画局部". www.chinabuddhism.com.cn.
- JSTOR 41913238.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 118 (Color Image). p. 112.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 125 (Color Image). pp. 119 ff.
- ^ Cave 135. Archived from the original on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2021-02-13.
- ISBN 9789004391864.
- ^ JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1 / Page 130 (Color Image). p. 124.
- ^ "Kizil Caves – 149 A Database for Buddhist Cave Temples in China". dsr.nii.ac.jp.
- ^ a b Cave 181 is described extensively by Grünwedel (1920). He initially describes it as a "Cave in the Ravine", which has been interpreted sometimes as the cave of the same name (Schluchthöhle, "Cave of the Ravine") on the left of the small ravine and numbered 178. However, Grunwedel's description makes it clear that the cave is high up on the right side of the ravine (together with a map), which excludes cave 178. Further, in his plates (XXIV-XXVII), Grünwedel labels the murals of the cave as belonging to Hochliegende Höhle der 2. Schlucht ([1], "Cave of the High Place in the small valley"), which is the official German name he gave to cave 181 (for the German nomenclature, see [2]), which indeed is the highest cave of the area, and explains why most of the murals were intact when Grünwedel discovered them [3]. This association is properly summarized by East and West (Volume 56, page 350): "Cave 181 ( Hochliegende Höhle der 2. Schlucht ), left side – wall , Berlin , Museum für Indische Kunst , publ .: Grünwedel 1920 : pls . 26–27"
- JSTOR 29757697.
- ^ "Die Decke ist nämlich kein Tonnengewölbe, sondern zeltförmig ansteigend." in Grünwedel, Albert. Alt-Kutscha : vol.1 / Page 167 (Color Image). p. II56.
- ^ a b Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 136.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 133.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 162.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 158.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 148.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 180.
- ^ Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan : vol.1. p. 171.
- ISBN 978-1-884446-00-9.
Bibliography
- Alt-Kutscha : vol.1
- Arlt, Robert; Hiyama, Satomi (2013). "Fruits of Research on the History of Central Asian Art in Berlin: The Identification of Two Sermon Scenes from Kizil Cave 206 (Fußwaschungs- höhle)". Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift (Berlin) 17: 16–26.
- ISBN 0-691-02469-3.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
- Grünwedel, Albert (1912). Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan: Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten von 1906 bis 1907 bei Kuča, Qarašahr und in der Oase Turfan. Berlin: Arthur-Baessler-Institut. Doi:10.20676/00000191.
- Hopkirk, Peter (1984). ISBN 9780870234354.
- Hiyama, Satomi 檜山智美 (2013) Study on the first-style murals of Kucha: Analysis of some motifs related to the Hephthalite's period クチャの第一樣式壁畫に見られるエフタル期のモチーフについて (“Kucha no daiichi yōshiki hekiga ni mirareru Efutaru ki no mochīfu ni tsuite”). In Buddhism and Art in Gandhāra and Kucha: Buddhist Culture along the Silk Road; Gandhāra, Kucha, and Turfan, Section I, edited by Miyaji Akira, pp. 125–63. Kyoto: Ryukoku University.
- Howard, Angela Falco; Vignato, Giuseppe (2015). Archaeological and Visual Sources of Meditation in the Ancient Monasteries of Kuca. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004278578.
- Le Coq, Albert von (1913). Chotscho: Facsimile-Wiedergaben der wichtigsten Funde der 1. Kgl. Preuss. Expedition nach Turfan in Ostturkistan. Berlin.
- (1982). Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums. Exhibition from the Museum für Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin and Federal Republic of Germany at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
- Morita, Miki (2015). "The Kizil Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum" in The Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 50, pp. 115–136.
- Vignato, Giuseppe (2006). "Archaeological Survey of Kizil, Its Groups of Caves, Districts, Chronology and Buddhist Schools" in East and West (Rome) 56/4: 359–416.
- Zin, Monika (2007). "The Identification of the Kizil Paintings II [3. Sudåya, 4. Brhaddyuti]" in Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift (Berlin) 11: 43–52.
- Encyclopedia of Buddhist Art 世界佛教美術圖說大辭典. FGS. Archived from the original on 2021-01-21. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
External links
- Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material from Kizil Caves
- The Oases of the Northern Tarim Basin
- Revealing the Beauty of the Kizil Caves
- "Sackler Gallery exhibition in 2002– Caves as Canvas: Hidden Images of Worship Along the Ancient Silk Road". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2003-01-03. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
- Kizil Paintings in the Hermitage Museum
- Kizil Paintings in the Dahlem Museum