Cloisonné
Cloisonné (French:
In antiquity, the cloisonné technique was mostly used for jewellery and small fittings for clothes, weapons or similar small objects decorated with geometric or schematic designs, with thick cloison walls. In the Byzantine Empire techniques using thinner wires were developed to allow more pictorial images to be produced, mostly used for religious images and jewellery, and by then always using enamel. This was used in Europe, especially in Carolingian and Ottonian art. By the 14th century this enamel technique had been replaced in Europe by champlevé, but had then spread to China, where it was soon used for much larger vessels such as bowls and vases; the technique remains common in China to the present day, and cloisonné enamel objects using Chinese-derived styles were produced in the West from the 18th century.
In Middle Byzantine architecture cloisonné masonry refers to walls built with a regular mix of stone and brick, often with more of the latter. The 11th or 12th-century Pammakaristos Church in Istanbul is an example.[3]
History
Ancient world
Cloisonné first developed in the jewellery of the ancient Near East, and the earliest enamel all used the cloisonné technique, placing the enamel within small cells with gold walls. This had been used as a technique to hold pieces of stone and gems tightly in place since the 3rd millennium BC, for example in Mesopotamia, and then Egypt. Enamel seems likely to have developed as a cheaper method of achieving similar results.[4]
The earliest undisputed objects known to use enamel are a group of Mycenaean rings from Graves in Cyprus, dated to the 12th century BC, and using very thin wire.[5]
In the jewellery of
The technique appears in the
Byzantium and Europe
The Byzantines perfected a unique form of cloisonné icons.
The dazzling technique of the
From about the 8th century, Byzantine art began again to use much thinner wire more freely to allow much more complex designs to be used, with larger and less geometric compartments, which was only possible using enamel.[16] These were still on relatively small objects, although numbers of plaques could be set into larger objects, such as the Pala d'Oro, the altarpiece in Saint Mark's Cathedral, Venice. Some objects combined thick and thin cloisons for varied effect.[17] The designs often (as at right) contained a generous background of plain gold, as in contemporary Byzantine mosaics. The area to be enamelled was stamped to create the main depression, pricked to help the enamel adhere, and the cloisons added.[18]
Two different techniques in Byzantine and European cloisonné enamel are distinguished, for which the German names are still typically used in English. The earliest is the Vollschmelz ("full" enamel, literally "full melt") technique where the whole of a gold base plate is to be covered in enamel. The edges of the plate are turned up to form a reservoir, and gold wires are soldered in place to form the cloisons. The enamel design therefore covers the whole plate. In the Senkschmelz ("sunk" enamel, literally "sunk melt") technique the parts of the base plate to hold the design are hammered down, leaving a surrounding gold background, as also seen in contemporary Byzantine icons and mosaics with gold glass backgrounds, and the saint illustrated here. The wires and enamels are then added as before. The outline of the design will be apparent on the reverse of the base plate.[19] The transition between the two techniques occurs around 900 in Byzantine enamel,[20] and 1000 in the West, though with important earlier examples.[21]
The plaques with apostles of around the latter date on the Holy Crown of Hungary show a unique transitional phase, where the base plaque has hammered recesses for the design, as in senkschmelz work, but the enamel covers the whole plaque except for thick outlines around the figures and inscriptions, as in the vollschmelz technique (see the gallery below for examples of this technique and vollschmelz work).[22] Some 10th-century pieces achieve a senkschmelz effect by using two plates superimposed on each other, the upper one with the design outline cut out and the lower one left plain.[23]
In medieval Western Europe cloisonné enamel technique was gradually overtaken by the rise of
Other ways of using the technique have been developed, but are of minor importance. In 19th century Japan it was used on pottery vessels with ceramic glazes, and it has been used with lacquer and modern acrylic fillings for the cloisons.[27] A version of cloisonné technique is often used for lapel badges, logo badges for many objects such as cars, including BMW models, and other applications, though in these the metal base is normally cast with the compartments in place, so the use of the term cloisonné, though common, is questionable. That technique is correctly referred to by goldsmiths, metalsmiths and enamellists as champlevé.
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The Dorestad Brooch, c. 800, found in the Netherlands. Gold, pearls, with cloisonné almandine, enamel, and glass.
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Visigothic 6th-century eagle-fibula, from Spain with garnets, amethysts, and colored glass, and some cloisons now empty.
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Plaque with Saint Peter showing the unique transitional technique of the Holy Crown of Hungary (see text)
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St George slaying the dragon, 12th century cloisonné enamel on gold, Georgia
China
From Byzantium or the Islamic world the technique reached
Chinese cloisonné is sometimes confused with Canton enamel, a type of painted enamel on copper that is more closely related to
In Byzantine pieces, and even more in Chinese work, the wire by no means always encloses a separate color of enamel. Sometime a wire is used just for decorative effect, stopping in the middle of a field of enamel, and sometimes the boundary between two enamel colors is not marked by a wire. In the Byzantine plaque at right the first feature may be seen in the top wire on the saint's black sleeve, and the second in the white of his eyes and collar. Both are also seen in the Chinese bowl illustrated at top right.
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Chinese shrine for a Bodhisattva, 1736–1795. Shrine: Cloisonné enamel on copper alloy; Figure is copper with gems
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Qing dynasty cloisonné dish
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Chinese cloisonné enamel incense burner, 17th-18th centuries
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Chinese enameled and gilt candlestick from the 18th or 19th century, Qing dynasty
Japan
The Japanese also produced large quantities from the mid-19th century, of very high technical quality.
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Matching Pair of Cloisonné Vases, c. 1800–1894, from the Oxford College Archives of Emory University
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Kyoto Cloisonne Enamel, by Namikawa Yasuyuki (1845–1927)
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Meiji period, the largest cloisonné enamel in history at the time and was exhibited at the World's Columbian Expositionin 1893.
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Tokyo Cloisonne Enamel, Shōtai Shippō by Namikawa Sōsuke (c. 1900), translucent plique-a-jour enamel on silver.
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Pair of Two-fold Screens 1900–1905, Nagoya, Japan
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Ando Cloisonné Company, (c. 1910)
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Owari Cloisonne Enamel Octagon by Takemasa Tamura[39]
Russia
The first Russian cloisonné developed from Byzantine models during the period of
Modern process
First the object to be decorated is made or obtained; this will normally be made by different craftspeople. The
Vitreous enamels in the different colors are ground to fine powders in an agate or porcelain mortar and pestle, then washed to remove the impurities that would discolor the fired enamel.[43] The enamel is made from silica, niter, and lead oxide to which metallic oxides are added for coloring. These ingredients are melted together, forming a glassy frit which is ground again before application. Each color of enamel is prepared this way before it is used and then mixed with a very dilute solution of gum tragacanth. Using fine spatulas, brushes or droppers, the enameler places the fine colored powder into each cloison. The piece is left to dry completely before firing, which is done by putting the article, with its enamel fillings, in a kiln. The enamel in the cloisons will sink down a lot after firing, due to melting and shrinkage of the granular nature of the glass powder, much as sugar melting in an oven. This process is repeated until all cloisons are filled to the top of the wire edge.
Three styles of cloisonné are most often seen: concave, convex, and flat. The finishing method determines this final appearance.[44] With concave cloisonné the cloisons are not completely filled. Capillary action causes the enamel surface to curve up against the cloisonné wire when the enamel is molten, producing a concave appearance. Convex cloissoné is produced by overfilling each cloison, at the last firing. This gives each color area the appearance of slightly rounded mounds. Flat cloisonné is the most common. After all the cloisons are filled the enamel is ground down to a smooth surface with lapidary equipment, using the same techniques as are used for polishing cabochon stones. The top of the cloisonné wire is polished so it is flush with the enamel and has a bright lustre.[45][46] Some cloisonné wire is electroplated with a thin film of gold, which will not tarnish as silver does.[47][48]
Examples
Enamel
- The 8th-century Irish Ardagh Chalice
- The Alfred Jewel, a 9th-century Anglo-Saxon ornament
- The Khakhuli triptych, a large gold altarpiece with over 100 Georgian and Byzantine plaques, dating from the 8th to 12th centuries, said to be the largest enamelled work of art in the world.
- the eyes of the 10th century Golden Madonna of Essen
- The 12th century Mosan Stavelot Triptych, combining cloisonné and champlevé work.
- The Khalili Imperial Garniture from late 19th century Japan
Gems and glass
- The Pectoral of Tutankhamun, (image), and several others.
- The 5th century grave goods of Childeric I, last pagan king of the Franks, died c. 481
- The 5th-century Germanic Treasure of Pouan
- The 6th-century Merovingian Treasure of Gourdon
Collections
Collections of Japanese cloisonné enamels are held at major museums including the
Gallery
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Modern cloisonné enamel beads
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Cloisonné artwork of Korea (namjung cloisonné)
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Detail showing pattern and partially completed cloisons
See also
- Champlevé, enamelling into hollows made in a metal surface
- Polychrome vitreous enamel, where the glass is melted onto the object, is also done without separating wires.
- Yūzen, a similar technique for dying cloth, with pools of dye between ridges of temporary resist paste
Notes
- ^ Osborne, 331
- OED, "Cloison")
- ISBN 9780313321528, google books, a rather more restricted definition than some sources use.
- ^ Osborne, 331
- ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2.
- ^ Clark, 67-68. For an example see Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet Metropolitan Museum
- ^ Egyptian Paste Archived 2018-01-15 at the Wayback Machine article from Ceramics Today. See also Egyptian faience. There are disputes as to whether, or when, such materials were fired with the object, or fired separately first and then cut into pieces to be inlaid like gems. It seems both methods may have been used. See Day, Lewis Foreman, Enamelling: A Comparative Account of the Development and Practice of the Art, 7-10, 1907, Batsford
- ^ Ogden, 166
- ^ Osborne, 331
- ^ Osborne, 331
- ^ Late Antiquity, 464. See here for scientific materials analysis
- ^ Harden, Donald Benjamin (1956). Dark-age Britain: Studies Presented to E. T. Leeds. Methuen – via Google Books.
- ^ Youngs, 173
- ^ Green, 87-88
- ^ Ness, 110-114; Purse lid from the ship-burial at Sutton Hoo British Museum Google Arts & Culture app. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
- ^ The date of the change is uncertain, partly because Early Byzantine enamels were much forged in 19th century Russia, rather confusing historians.
- ^ Ross, 217
- ^ Ross, 99, describing what appear to be trainee pieces in bronze, never completed.
- ^ Bàràny-Oberschall, 122-123; Lasko, 8—he prefers ""full" enamel" and ""sunk" enamel"; British Museum on using the German names
- ^ Campbell, 11
- Egbert of Trier, and the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire; Lasko, 84-85
- ^ Bàràny-Oberschall, 122-123
- ^ Campbell, 13 figure 7
- ^ Osborne, 332-334
- ^ Campbell, 38-40
- ^ Cleveland mirror-back (illustrated)
- ^ Carpenter
- ^ Sullivan, 239; Dillon, 58-59.
- ^ Dillon, 58-59
- Orange Coast Magazine. p. 96.
This was improved further in the second of the 17th Century when copper--a more pliable metal--replaced bronze as the metal for both bases and cloisons.
- ^ Osborne, 201-202; Nillson, Jan-Brik, "Canton enamel", Gotheburg.com
- ^ V&A
- ^ Earle, 252
- OCLC 853452453.
- ISBN 978-4582922172
- ^ Toyoro Hida, Gregory Irvine, Kana Ooki, Tomoko Hana and Yukari Muro. Namikawa Yasuyuki and Japanese Cloisonné The Allure of Meiji Cloisonné: The Aesthetic of Translucent Black, pp.182-188, The Mainichi Newspapers Co, Ltd, 2017
- ^ "Japanese Cloisonné Manufacture". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
- JSTOR 25582341.
We doubt if any form of the enameller's art can equal the work executed in Japan, which is distinguished by great freedom of design, and the most exquisite gradations of color.
- ^ "TAMURA SHIPPO". TAMURA SHIPPO. Retrieved 2022-03-16.
- ^ Osborne, 677
- ^ Osborne, 680
- ^ Example in the Cleveland Museum of Art
- ISBN 978-1-85285-326-6.
- ^ Matthews, 146-147
- ISBN 978-0-486-13600-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8019-7285-0.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-1-74305-043-9.
- ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5.
- ^ "Meiji No Takara – Treasures of Imperial Japan: Enamel". Khalili Collections. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ Earle, 254
References
- Bàràny-Oberschall, Magda de, "Localization of the Enamels of the Upper Hemisphere of the Holy Crown of Hungary", JSTOR 3047226
- Campbell, Marian. An Introduction to Medieval Enamels, 1983, ISBN 0112903851
- Carpenter, Woodrow, Cloisonné Primer, from Glass on Metal, the Enamellist's Magazine, June 1995, online
- Clark, Grahame, Symbols of Excellence: Precious Materials as Expressions of Status, Cambridge University Press, 1986,
- Cosgrove, Maynard Giles, The enamels of China and Japan, champlevé and cloisonné, London, Hale, 1974.
- Dillon, Michael, China: a historical and cultural dictionary, Routledge, 1998,
- Earle, Joe (1999). Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection. St. Petersburg, FL: Broughton International Inc. OCLC 42476594.
- Gardner's Art Through the Ages, [1]
- Green:
- Harden, Donald B., Dark-age Britain, Taylor & Francis, 1956
- Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, various authors, Harvard University Press reference library, Harvard University Press, 1999,
- Kırmızı Burcu, Colomban Philippe, Béatrice Quette, On-site Analysis of Chinese Cloisonné Enamels from 15th to 19th century, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 41 (2010) 780–790. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jrs.2516/abstract
- Lasko, Peter, Ars Sacra, 800–1200, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 1972 (nb, 1st edn.)
- Ogden, Jack, "Metal", in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, eds. Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw, 2000, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521452570, 9780521452571, google books
- Osborne, Harold (ed), The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts, 1975, OUP, ISBN 0198661134
- Nees, Lawrence, Early Medieval Art, Oxford History of Art, 2002, Oxford UP
- Ross, Marvin C., Catalogue of the Byzantine and Early Medieval Antiquities: Jeweelry, Enamels, and art of the Migration Period, ISBN 0-88402-301-X, 9780884023012, Google books
- Sullivan, Michael, The arts of China, 4th edn, University of California Press, 1999,
- Susan Youngs (ed), "The Work of Angels", Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th-9th centuries AD, 1989, British Museum Press, London, ISBN 0-7141-0554-6
- "V&A": "Japanese Cloisonné: the Seven Treasures". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 2009-02-23. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
External links
- Cloisonné Articles and Tutorials at The Ganoksin Project
- Chinese Cloisonné, Department of Asian Art, in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–2004
- An Interview with Contemporary Enamel Artist Laura Zell Demonstrating Basic Cloisonné Techniques
- About TAMURA SHIPPO Cloisonne Enamel - TAMURA SHIPPO