Military conquests of Umar's era
Umar |
---|
Umar | |
---|---|
Arabia | |
Died | November 644 CE (Dhu al-Hijjah 26) (aged 60–61) Medina, Hejaz, Rashidun Caliphate |
Buried | Masjid an-Nabawi |
Allegiance | Caliphate |
Rank | Commander-in-chief |
Spouse(s) | |
Children | Children of Umar |
Historians estimate more than 4,050 cities were conquered during the reign of Umar.[4]
Military conquests of Umar's era are:
Conquest of the Levant & Upper Iraq (634–638)
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2022) |
Muslim forces invaded the neighboring
The Rashidun caliphate dealt the Byzantines crushing defeats at the battles of Ajnadayn and Fahl.[5] These significantly reduced the capacity of Byzantine army to operate in southern Syria and, according to historian Ross Burns, the massive losses from these battles practically wiped out the "southern Damascus shield", the Imperial forces which protected southern Syria.[6]
Caliph Umar successfully confronted the alliance by putting pressure on the Byzantines, while engaging Yazdegerd III in negotiations. This rendered the alliance weak and a would-be decisive plan was aborted. The Byzantine forces were decisively defeated in
Defense of Emesa & Conquest of Upper Mesopotamia
After the defeat in the
When Abu Ubayda died in 639, Caliph Umar appointed Iyad in his place as the ʿamal (governor) of
The counter sieges carried out by Iyad did not stop with Circesium and Hit, as Iyadh further sent
After the successful defense of Emesa, which done simultaneously with the conquest of upper Mesopotamia, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with a relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.
Siege of Jerusalem & Asia minor conquest
Muslim victories pertinently ended Byzantine rule south of
The conquest of
I wish there were a wall of fire between us and the Romans, so that nor we can cross into their land neither they could in ours
The Byzantine empire already exhausted after major defeats in Yarmouk and Northern Syria was left vulnerable to Muslims' attacks and its very existence in
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Map detailing the route of Muslim's invasion of central Syria.
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Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria.
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Map detailing the route of Muslim's invasion of northern Syria.
Conquest of Africa (640–643)
After losing the Levant, the economic lifeline and main source of manpower of Byzantines and Armenia, Emperor Heraclius was left incapable of any military come back. As a result, he focused on consolidating his power in
However, he eventually decided to put the matter to the
Conquest of Egypt
In December 639, 'Amr ibn al-'As left for Egypt with a force of 4,000 troops. Most of the soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of 'Ak, but
In of December 639 or early January 640, the Muslim army reached
In July 640, during the siege of Babylon fortress in Egypt against the Byzantine forces, Amr wrote to Umar to ask for reinforcements. The caliph then sent 'Ubadah with 4,000 reinforcements.[47] Thus in his letter, Umar wrote as following:
I have sent you a reinforcements [sic] of 8.000 warriors. It consist of 4,000 mens [sic], each of 1,000 was led by four figures wherein each of these men strength are equal to 1,000 soldiersmens [sic]'[47]
Those 4 commanders were two veteran Muhajireen,
As they arrived in Egypt, Zubayr immediately helped the Rashidun army capture the city of
The Muslim army reached
Later, during the
Truly there are 1000 of my comrades behind me. They are peoples who have darker skin than me and more sinister than me. if you saw them you would be more scared than you see me. I was appointed (as the leader) and my youth had passed. and praise be to Allah. You know, I'm not afraid if 100 of your people face me alone at once. so are my comrades behind me[53]
Ubadah gave him three options: accept Islam, pay Jizyah, or fight it out in accordance with al-Aas' instruction, as Muqawqis later refused the two first options and choose to continue fighting
Later, Ubadah gave a speech before marched towards Alexandria.[70] Then as they arrived outside the city, Ubadah led a detachment to besiege Alexandria on the same day and reused his strategy of using trenches strategy to conquer Latakia in Syria, where he gave a signal to the entire army including those who hid in the trenches to launch an assault, where his strategy successfully breached and routed the Alexandrian garrison forces on the very first charge.[71] Thousands of Byzantine soldiers were killed or taken captive, and others managed to flee to Constantinople on ships that had been anchored in the port. Some wealthy traders also left.[59] Ibn Abd al-Hakam noted through his long narrations, that az-Zubayr skipped the siege of Alexandria, as the siege were done by 'Ubadah ibn al-Samit.[72][Notes 4]
Meanwhile, Miqdad ibn al-Aswad campaign pacified several areas in al-Gharbia region, started from Kafr Tanah (area in modern-day
Conquest of northern Sudan
Later, the caliphate army on Egypt moved south to face the
Later, the Rashidun army continued to invade and besiege the city
As now the city has captured, Oxyrynchus were renamed as "Al-Qays town", by Maqrizi or "town of Martyrs" in honor to one of the Muslim commander that participated in the conquest of Oxyrynchus.[87] Ali Pasha Mubarak mentioned it in the compromise plans that it was a city that had great fame and its flat was about 1000 acres and the golden curtains were working and the length of the curtains was 30 cubits and its territory included 120 villages other than the plantations and the hamlets. The northern is Kandous, the western is the mountain, the tribal is Touma, and the eastern is the sea. Each gate had three towers, and there were forty ribats, palaces, and many mosques, and at its western end there is a famous place known as the "Dome of Seven maidens".[84]
Conquest of the north Africa
By 642 AD, under Caliph Umar, Arab Muslim forces had laid control of Mesopotamia (638 AD), Syria (641 AD), Egypt (642 AD), and had invaded Armenia (642 AD), all territories previously split between the warring Byzantine and Sasanian empires, and were concluding their conquest of the Persian Empire with their defeat of the Persian army at the Battle of Nahāvand.
It is recorded by Ibn Abd al-Hakam that during the siege of Tripoli by Amr ibn al-As, seven of his soldiers from the clan of Madhlij, sub branch of Kinana, unintentionally found a section on the western side of Tripoli beach that was not walled during their hunting routine.[88] These seven soldiers managed to infiltrate the city through this way without being detected by the city guards, and then managed to incite riots within the city while shouting Takbir, causing the confused Byzantine garrison soldiers to think the Muslim forces were already inside in the city and to flee towards their ship leaving Tripoli, thus, allowing Amr to march his troops to enter and subdue the city easily.[88]
Later, the Muslim forces besieged Barqa (
Dismissal of Khalid from army
In late 638, following Khalid's invasion of Byzantine Armenia in eastern Anatolia, he was dismissed from the army by Umar. The exact reason is unknown, but various scholars have argued that Khalid's dismissal at the zenith of his career was due to the fact that Muslims started having faith in Khalid's command rather than God for being victorious which worried Umar, who saw this as a threat to religious believes of Muslims which says only to rely on God. Also, a poet wrote some poetry on Khalid's bravery and Khalid being impressed, gave him some award.
When Umer learned about it, he called Khalid and said,
"If you have given him money from bait Ul maal, then its corruption and if you have given him your own wealth, then it is wasteful expenditure which is a sin. In both cases, you are dismissed from your rank.
Khalid, on his return from an expedition of
You have achieved what no man did ever before, but verily it was through Allah's help
due to his act of dismissing Khalid, Umar was highly criticized publicly. Umar thus explained his dismissal of Khalid as:
I have not dismissed Khalid because of my anger or because of any dishonesty on his part, but because people glorified him and were misled. I feared that people would rely on him for victory. I want them to know that it is Allah who does all things; and there should be no mischief in the land.
From Madinah Khalid went to
Umar reportedly said:
Let the women of the Banu Makhzum say what they will about Abu Sulaiman (Khalid), for they do not lie, over the likes of Abu Sulaiman weep those who weep.
Umar is reported to have later regretted over his decision of dismissing Khalid from army, accepting the fact that he (Khalid) was not like as he (Umar) thought of him. On his death bed, Umar is also reported to have wished that beside
Conquest of Byzantine territory
Conquest of mainland Persia
After the battle Umar changed his policy towards the Sassanid Empire. Yazdegerd III, who unlike his Roman counterpart Heraclius, denied submission to Muslim supremacy in his land, was a constant threat to the Caliphate, and Umar decided to launch a whole scale invasion of Sassanid Persian to eliminate it.
Battle of al-Qadisiyah
After arriving in Qadisiyyah, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, the supreme commander of Rashidun army in Iraq were joined by Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib and Tulayha, who had often been hired by the Quraysh tribe to fight their wars in Pre-Islamic Arabia.[citation needed] Sa'd then sent scouts led by Amr and Tulayha through enemy territory to gather information.[91] After two days of scouting, Amr and Tulayha returned and reported on a massive army of 240,000 Sassanid soldiers moving towards their location.[92][93][Notes 11].[96]
During the fourth day of the battle of Qadisiyyah, Al-Qa`qa` plotted a plan to end the fierce fighting against the Muslims and the Persians; so he suggested his plan towards his superior, al Muthanna ibn Haritha, about leading a special unit to exploit the intensity of the deadlock battle as he will charge and slip onto small gap between Sassanid lines and assassinate Rostam.[citation needed] al-Qa'qa personally choose group of tribal chiefs who were known for strength and valorous, such as Amr ibn Ma'dikarib, Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, and Ibn Dhul-Bardain for this mission task.[97] As the battle started, al-Qa'qa then execute the plan as he immediately galloped forward with his special units that included Amr on a daring charge to penetrate the surprised Sasanian lines.[91] As the Sassanid soldiers unexpected such maneuver, al-Qa'qa and his units managed to reach the enemy commander, Rostam Farrokhzad.[91] Amr managed to kill one of Rostam's escort and seized his golden bracelets and other brocade coat, while later according to Tabari, Rostam was killed by Amr comrade named Ullafah.[98] At this stage, Ya'qubi has recorded, that Amr, along with Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar, Tulayha, and Kurt ibn Jammah al-Abdi has discovered the corpse of Rostam farrokhzad, the highest commander of Sassanid army during this battle.[99][Notes 12] The death of Rostam shocked the entire Sassanid, which prompted Sa'd to instruct general assault to all the Muslim soldiers and ended the four day length battles which resulted the annihilation of Sassanid main forces mustered in Qadisiyyah.[102]
Shortly after Sa'd conquered al-Madain, Umar instructed him not to advance immediately in chasing down the Sassanid forces which fled to the mountains, but instead to stabilize the conquered area first.[103]
After capturing
I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them. The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war.
Battle of Jalula
Later, as Yazdegerd fled to Hulwan, he immediately gathered his soldiers and followers who were in every territory he came to pass until it mustered into more than 100,000 soldiers and appointed Mihran as the commander of this huge army.[91] According to John Paul C. Nzomiwu, Yazdegerd raised this massive army from Hulwan as he cannot accept the defeat in al-Qadisiyyah.[104] The army of Mihran dug a big ditch around it them as a defense and dwelt in that place with a number of troops, supplies and lots of equipment. to pass Sa'ad immediately sent a letter to Umar about further instruction, which replied by the Caliph for Sa'd to stay in al-Mada'in and appoint Hashim ibn Utbah as the leader of the troops to attack Jalula, Sa'ad immediately executed these instructions and sending Hashim ibn Utbah to lead the Rashidun troopes to engage Mihran forces in the battle of Jalula.[105] Al-Qa'qa were appointed as vanguard, Malik ibn Si'r as right wing, 'Amr ibn Malik on the left, while 'Amr ibn Murrah al-Juhani as rearguard.[91] The said composition of the overall Rashidun troops sent to Jalula numbered 12,000 soldiers, which consisted veteran warriors from Muhajirun and Ansar from the tribal chiefs of the interior Arabs.[91] In this battle alone, It is said that the Muslims also managed to seize spoils in the form of treasures, weapons, gold and silver which amounted to almost as many as the treasures they found in al-Madain,[Notes 13] There are also ornaments and silver dishes among the spoils.[106] Meanwhile, Asad Q. Ahmed note it is bigger than spoils in Ctesiphon.[107]
Conquest of Khuzestan
After the Muslims landed in Basra in Dhul-Hijjah in the year 16 AH, the Islamic army was subjected to Persian raids led by Hormuzan from the city of Ahvaz which bordering Basra.[108] Before his natural death, Utbah send an army which commanded by Arfajah, Hudhaifah bin Muhsin, Mujaza bin Thawr, Husayn ibn Al Qa'qa, Ashim ibn Amr, and Salma ibn Al Qain, who lead in 700 soldiers each.[108] These Basra contingents were further reinforced by garrison of Kufa, governed by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, before the battle against Hormuzan.[109] Before they engage Hormuzan, Arfajah and the Muslim armies marches to the vicinity of the area, to subdue several places including Kashkar, to cut off supply route and reinforcements for the Sassanids in Ahvaz.[110] Arfajah managed to defeat the Hormuzan in this battle and the latter sued for peace.[109]
In 18 AH, Rashidun general named Arfajah began to the conquest of Khuzestan, as they then marching towards Ramhormoz.[111] Arfajah marched on with Al-Bara' ibn Malik, Majza' bin Thawr, and reinforcements from Kufah led by Abu Sabrah ibn Abi Rahm,[111] until they rendezvoused with the forces from Kufa led by Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin and merged their forces to face Hormuzan.[112] Then they later defeated Hormuzan, who led the Sassanid resistance before in Ahvaz. Hormuzan then flee from Ramhormoz and escape towards Shushtar.[110] Umar giving specific instructed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the supreme commander of the Khuzestan conquest, to bringing in one of the caliphate best warrior, Al-Bara' ibn Malik, to the siege of Shushtar.[113] After the lengthy Siege of Shushtar, Hormuzan, supreme commander of Sassanid imperial army are finally taken captive.[110]
After the Siege of Shushtar, Arfajah continued to press deeper of Khuzestan with Abu Musa al-Ash'ari and Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin capturing Shush,[114] until Arfajah arrived in the great Battle of Nahavand,[115] which result sealed the fate of Sassanid forever as more than 100,000 Sassanid soldiers killed in this battle alone,[116]
In year 25 AH, Arfajah choose a small village near Nineveh in the eastern bank of Tigris to build new garrison city,[117][118] which later known as city of Haditha Mosul(new Mosul),[119] that in the future will be simply known as city of Haditha. These garrison cities under Arfajah became main headquarters and supply route for the army that were sent to Muslim conquest of Armenia and Muslim conquest of Azerbaijan.[118]
Battle of Nahavand
On the eve of the
After a devastating defeat at Nihawand, last Sassanid emperor Yazdgerd III, was never to be able again to raise more troops to resist the mighty onslaught of Umar, it had now become a war between two rulers, Umar would follow Yazdgerd III to every corner of his empire either will kill him or will capture him, like he did with Hormuzan. Yazdgerd III would have a narrow escape at
Further conquest of Iran
After the battle of Nahavand, Umar sent letter to Nu'aym ibn Muqarrin to march towards Hamadan, with Suwaid ibn Muqarrin leading the vanguard, Rib'i ibn Amir at-Tayy and Muhalhil ibn Zayd at-Tamimi lead the wings.[126] Then the troops marched on chasing the fleeing Sassanid forces towards Hamadan through mountainous road of Thaniyyat al-'Asal.[126] Then as they reached Hamadan, Nu'aym realized the Hamadan has been fortified to resist the Rashidun offensive.[126] Thus Nu'aym started to besiege the Hamadan by entrenching themselves on the roads between Hamadan and Jarmidhan mountains.[126] Nu'aym troops taking all the areas around Hamadan, then as the inhabitant of Hamadan realized they has been surrounded, they sued for peace and offered tribute to Nu'aym as a sign of their submission.[126]
In 642, Umar launched multi-prong expeditions into
Red Sea & India
Before the ascension of Abu Bakar as caliph, Arabs kingdom Bahrain joined the caliphate Al-Ala al-Hadhrami, the ruler of the kingdom who has pledged allegiance to the caliphate along with Arfajah, al-Ala general and the first Muslim Arab naval commander according Mahmoud Sheet Khattab .[130]
In the year 12 AH (633 AD), Arfajah led further naval operation and conquered a large number of islands in the Gulf of Oman.[131] Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who narrated from the text of Al-Waqidi, pointed that Arfajah did not have trouble to raise an army and ships which needed to mount this naval invasion without the support of central caliphate, due to his notably wealthiness and powerful influence of followers from within his clan. Ahmed Jawdat further narrated that the background of Arfajah naval expedition from Al-Waqidi's book that Arfajah were filled by impetuous Jihad motivation as he launched the expedition without the permission of Umar, boarded the ships and marched for the conquest in the Sea of Oman.[132] However, Cevdet Pasha mistook as he though this campaign occurred during Umar caliphate, while in reality it is occurred during caliphate of Abu Bakr.[133] Tabari narrated that as caliph Abu Bakar learned Arfajah acted without his consent, he immediately dismissed Arfajah from the navy command.[134] Later during the era of Umar, Naval activity of the caliphate continued as ‘Alqama crossed the Red Sea toward Abyssinia with permission from Umar. The expedition was disastrous, and only a few ships returned safely to their home port. This accident probably became the reason of the reluctance of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab to embark such naval adventures again for most time of his reign.[135] Meanwhile in Bahrain, there constant naval raids by Persians.[136] Arfajah, who just conquered the town of Sawad immediately called back to Bahrain to reinforce al-Ala.[137]
|
Caliph Umar praise Arfajah in his letter to Utbah ibn Ghazwan.[138] |
In the end of the year 13 AH (634 AD), al Ala ibn Hadhrami commanded Arfajah started sending ships and boats for further maritime expedition,
After the island were subdued, Arfajah, under instruction from al Ala, started to sending ships towards Sassanid coast in Port of Tarout of the island. This continued Until Arfajah reached the port of Borazjan, where according to Ibn Sa'd Arfajah sunk many Persian navy ships in this battle,[147] Shuaib Al Arna'ut and al-Arqsoussi recorded the words of Al-Dhahabi regarding Arfaja naval campaign during this occasion: "...Arfaja sent to the coast of Persia, destroying many (enemy) ships, and conquered the island and build mosque..".[148]
It is said by historians this Arfajah operations in the coast of
However, this time caliph 'Umar disliked Arfajah unnecessarily dragged sea adventures, as the naval forces of Arfajah were originally dispatched to support Utbah ibn Ghazwan to conquer Ubulla.[152] Shortly, 'Umar instructed to dismiss Arfajah from his command and reassign al-Ala ibn Hadrami as his replacement.[152] although, Donnes said in his version that al-Ala died before he could assume the position.[152] regardless the versions, the caliph then later instructed Arfajah to bring 700 soldiers from Bahrain to immediately reinforce Utbah who is marching towards Al-Ubulla.[156] Arfajah managed to rendezvous with Utbah later in the location that will become a Basra city, and together they besieged Ubulla until they managed to capture the port city.[157]
Coastal campaign of Hind
The campaign in Hind managed to draw the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan).[158] Then Ibn Abu al-Aas dispatched naval expeditions against the remaining ports and positions Sassanids.[159] This naval operation immediately conflicted Hindu kingdoms of Kapisa-Gandhara in modern-day Afghanistan, Zabulistan and Sindh.[160][161] As Ibn al-Aas delegate the expeditions against Thane and Bharuch toward his brother, Hakam. Another sibling named al-Mughira were given the command to invade Debal.[162] Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal and Thane, and the Arabs returning to Oman without incurring any fatalities.[163] The raids were launched in late 636c. 636.[164][165] The contemporary Armenian historian Sebeos confirms these Arab raids against the Sasanian littoral.[159] However, this naval operations were launched without Umar's sanction and he disapproved of them upon learning of the operations.[161]
The Rashidun navy continued pushing as in 639 or 640, Ibn Abu-al-Aas and al-Hakam once again captured and garrisoned Arab troops in the Fars town of Tawwaj near the Persian Gulf coast, southwest of modern Shiraz. while delegate the affair of Bahrain to al-Mughira.[166][159] In 641 Ibn al-Aas established his permanent fortress at Tawwaj.[166] From Tawwaj in the same year, he captured the city of Reishahr and killed the Sasanian governor of Fars, Shahruk.[166] By 642 Ibn Abu-al-Aas subjugated the cities of Jarreh, Kazerun and al-Nubindjan.[166] until they reached "The Frontier of Al Hind", where now they engaged the first land battle against a ruler of an Indian kingdom named Rutbil, King of Zabulistan.[167] in the Battle of Rasil in 644 AD.[168][169][170] According to Baloch, the reasons Uthman ibn Abi al-'As launch this campaign without caliph consent were possibly zeal-driven adventures for the cause of jihad (holy struggle).[171] Meanwhile, George Malagaris opined this expedition have limited aim to protect the sea trade of caliphate from pirates attack.[172]
Nevertheless, this naval campaign towards Hind immediately terminated the moment
Conflict with Hindu kingdoms
Before the Muslim raids, Makran was under the Hindu Rais of Sindh, but the region was also shared by the
Raja Rasil, a local Hindu potentate of the
Further east from the Indus River laid
See also
Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman
References
Notes
- ^ Baladhuri said al-Zubayr climbed the Babylon fortress wall alone.[67] while other sources said he climbed it with a handful soldiers[66]
- ^ The entire narrations found in Qatadah work, Futuh as-Sham wa Misr, page 209, 227[66]
- ^ According to Mahmoud Sheet Khattab, az-Zubayr recalling his memory regarding Yarmuk and Nahavand when he climbed the wall of the fortress of Babylon with 6 of Muslim soldiers: "I commit myself… (to the battle of) Yarmouk, the decisive gates of the land of Levant, and the decisive battle of Nahawand.... the gates of Persia for the Muslim..."[73]
- ^ According to one account, the army which brought by Miqdad to capture Damietta and lake Burullus were amounted 80,000 personnels.[78]
- ^ The compilation records about the conquest of Sudan and southern egypt were compilled in Futuhat Bahnasa and records of al-Maqrizi[79][80]
- ^ Symmachos were a successor of Foederati auxiliary troops in Roman empire that existed around 400-650 AD.[82] In this case, they consisted of native black Sudanese auxiliary units of Byzantine.[80]
- ^ Waqidi recorded that around 5,000 Sahabah were fallen during this battle.[83]
- ^ The first version narrated the siege of Bahnasa were led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, who also brought an ex Sassanid Marzban and his 2,000 Persian convert soldiers in this campaign. The Persian Marzban suggested to Khalid to form a suicide squad who will carry a wooden box filled with mixture of sulphur and oil and placing it at the gates, ignited it and blasting the gates(or melting the iron gate, according to the original translation), allowing the Muslim army to enter the city.[85][86]
- ^ The second version were the Muslim army led by Qays ibn Harith without much details of how the Muslims managed to subdue the city. However, this source mention that Qays ibn Harith name were used temporarily to rename Oxyrhynchus for while to honor his deeds in this campaign, before being renamed to be al-Bahnasa.[87]
- ^ Most Hadith scholars expressed their skepticism regarding historical narration of Sayf ibn Umar although non narrative historical informations of him was not criticized[94][95]
- Baladhuri giving the third version that it is Qays ibn Makshuh, Amr nephew, who killed Rostam.[101]
- ^ In the original written Sa'adian text this correction is from Tarikh ath-Thabari, 4/24. See his biography in al-Ishabah, 3/257.[91]
- ^ According to Baladhuri, 40,000 coin.[146]
- Sunni jurisprudence on the later era that every single soldier has a right for a fifth of Ghanima or spoils of war, according to his performance deeds in the battlefield.[144]
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- ISBN 978-1-61640-534-2. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
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ذكر ابن فارس بأن الفاء والشين والغين : أصل. يدل على الانتشار. يقال : انفشغ الشيء وتفشغ ، إذا انتشر ، انظر «معجم مقاييس اللغة» ٤ / ٥٠٥.
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- ^ Pourshariati 2021, p. 354
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