Zabulistan | |
|---|---|
 Map of Zabulistan, 7th-10th-century | |
| Country | Afghanistan |
| Capital | Ghazni |
Part of a series on the |
|
|---|---|
| History of Afghanistan | |
 | |
| Timeline | |
|
Hephthalite Empire | 410–557 |
| Nezak Huns | 484–711 |
| Kabul Shahi | 565–879 |
| Principality of Chaghaniyan | 7th–8th centuries |
| Rashidun Caliphate | 652–661 |
| Tang China | 660–669 |
| Tibetan Empire | 660–842 |
| Umayyads | 661–750 |
| Zunbils | 680–870 |
| Lawik | 750-977 |
| Abbasids | 750–821 |
| Tahirids | 821–873 |
| Saffarids | 863–900 |
| Samanids | 875–999 |
| Ghaznavids | 963–1187 |
| Ghurids | before 879–1215 |
| Seljuks | 1037–1194 |
| Khwarezmids | 1215–1231 |
| Mongol Invasion | 1219–1226 |
| Chagatai Khanate | 1226–1245 |
| Qarlughids | 1224–1266 |
| Ilkhanate | 1256–1335 |
| Kartids | 1245–1381 |
| Timurids | 1370–1507 |
| Arghuns | 1520–1591 |
| Tanai coup attempt | 1990 |
| Islamic State | 1992–1996 |
| Islamic Emirate | 1996–2001 |
| US invasion | 2001 |
| Islamic State (reinstated) | 2001 |
| Interim/Transitional Administration | 2001–2004 |
| Islamic Republic (politics) | 2004–2021 |
| Islamic Emirate (reinstated) | since 2021 |
Part of a series on the |
||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| History of Iran | ||||||||||
 | ||||||||||
|
BCE / BC
|
||||||||||
|
Proto-Elamite | 3200–2700 | |||||||||
| Jiroft culture | c. 3100–2200 | |||||||||
| Lullubi Kingdom/Zamua | c. 3100-675 | |||||||||
| Elam | 2700–539 | |||||||||
| Marhaši | c. 2550-2020 | |||||||||
| Oxus Civilization | c. 2400–1700 | |||||||||
| Akkadian Empire | 2400–2150 | |||||||||
| Kassites | c. 1500–1155 | |||||||||
| Avestan period | c. 1500–500 | |||||||||
| Neo-Assyrian Empire | 911–609 | |||||||||
| Urartu | 860–590 | |||||||||
| Mannaea | 850–616 | |||||||||
| Zikirti | 750-521 | |||||||||
| Saparda | 720-670 |
| Kurt dynasty | 1244–1396 |
| Ilkhanate Empire | 1256–1335 |
| Chobanid dynasty | 1335–1357 |
| Muzaffarid dynasty | 1335–1393 |
| Jalayirid Sultanate | 1337–1376 |
| Sarbadars | 1337–1376 |
| Injuids | 1335–1357 |
| Afrasiyab dynasty | 1349–1504 |
| Mar'ashis | 1359–1596 |
| Timurid Empire | 1370–1507 |
| Kar-Kiya dynasty | 1370s–1592 |
| Qara Qoyunlu | 1406–1468 |
| Aq Qoyunlu | 1468–1508 |
| Safavid Iran | 1501–1736 |
| (Hotak dynasty) | 1722–1729 |
| Afsharid Iran | 1736–1796 |
| Zand dynasty | 1751–1794 |
| Qajar Iran | 1789–1925 |
| Pahlavi Iran | 1925–1979 |
| Iranian Revolution | 1979 |
| Interim Government | 1979 |
| Islamic Republic | 1979–present |
Iran portalZabulistan (
By the tenth century, Islamic sources mention Zabulistan as part of the Khorasan marches, a frontier region between Khorasan and India.[1] In the Tarikh-i Sistan, finished around 1062 CE, the author regards Zabul as part of the land of Sistan, stretching from the Hamun Oasis all the way to the Indus River.[3]
Today, the modern
Zābulistān (Persian: زابلستان) which is the Persian name of the region, literally means "the land of Zābul". The etymology of the name Zābul has been marred with speculation. The German historian Marquart, proposed the word, including its uncommon Medieval variant Jāwulistān (Persian: جابلستان) as being a variation of the Sanskrit term.[5] Others have speculated that the word zābul might be an abbreviation of zūnbīl, a supposed royal title of the region known from Arabic sources, earlier read as rutbīl, and now used to refer to a local dynasty of Zamindawar now called the Zunbils. This notion however currently stands on loose ground, and Minorsky holds that the consonant resemblance between these two words look merely fortuitous.[5]
Jāguḍa (Sanskrit: जागुड), meaning saffron,[6] was the Sanskrit name of the region. It is also regarded as being referred to by this name in 644 CE by the Chinese traveling monk Xuanzang in the Chinese transliteration Tsau-kü-ta.[5]
The earliest detailed description of Zabulistan comes from the
"The country of Jāguda is more than seven thousand li in circuit, and its capital city, named Hexina (Ghazni), is over thirty li in circuit; but the capital is sometimes located in the city of Hesaluo (Guzar), which is also over thirty li in circuit, both cities being strongly fortified in invulnerable positions. The mountains and valleys are rich in natural resources, and the cultivated farmlands, divided by ridges, are high and dry. Crops are sown in proper seasons. Winter wheat is abundant, and vegetation is luxuriant with profuse flowers and fruits. The soil is good for growing aromatic turmeric, and it produces the hingu herb (Ferula asafoetida
During the Medieval Islamic era, the region is continuously mentioned in geographical works such as Istakhri's Kitab al-Masalik (930-933 CE), the Hudud al 'Alam (982 CE), Qazvīnī's Nuzhat al-Qulub etc.[8] As a dry region among the Khorasan marches, famous for its fruits, good hunting grounds and fine pastures.[9] The region is likewise described by Zahir ud-Din Babur in the early sixteenth century in his memoirs the Baburnama, which he roughly equates with the Timurid province of Ghazni. At this time, the region of Ghazni is described as bordering Kabul in its northeast, Zurmat to its east and Kandahar to its southwest.
"Ghazni, in the third clime, is also known as Zabul. Zabulistan consists of this province, and some consider Kandahar to be in Zabulistan. Ghazni is fourteen leagues southwest of Kabul. Those who take the road leave Ghazni at daybreak and arrive in Kabul in the afternoon, whereas the thirteen league road between Kabul and Adinapur (near modern Jalalabad) is so poor that no one can do it in a day. It is a miserable province. The river is a four- or five mill stream. The city of Ghazni and another four or five villages are watered by it, while another three or four others are irrigated by subterranean aqueducts. The grapes and melons of Ghazni are better than those of Kabul; the apples are also good and are taken to Hindustan (India). The agriculture is laborous because new soil must be brought in every year for whatever amount of land is planted. The yield, however, is better than that of Kabul. They plant madder, the best crop, all which is taken to Hindustan." Zahir ud-Din Babur, 1504-6 CE
The first mentions of the region coincides with its takeover by the
It is clear however that in the seventh to ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persianate realm. The Arab geographers, in effect, commonly speak of 'that king of al-Hind ... (who) bore the title of Zunbil'.[10]
The region was finally conquered and Islamized by the Ghaznavids after 961 CE.[11]
The first mentions of the word Zabul is from coinage of what's known as "the early anonymous clan-rulers". These were late fourth-century tribal chiefs and possibly former governors of the Sasanids from the north of the Hindu Kush, who following the course of the
Following the collapse of Sasanid control in
Sometime after 532 CE, after Mihrakulas devastating defeat against Yasodharman at Mawla, Alkhan power is understood to have subsequently returned to the Gandhara and the Kāpiśī valleys, thereby having to confront the Nezaks. Whether this encounter was mostly peaceful or hostile is currently unknown, but has been recorded in part among numismatic evidence, from Alkhan coins minted in Gandhara with the characteristic Nezak bull-headed crown over an otherwise typically Alkhan design, to the overstriking of Nezak coins in the second half of the 6th century by the Alkhan ruler Toramana II.[3] At around the same period, the Sasanians under Khusro I (r. 531-579) briefly reestablished their control of Balkh, and probably also Zabulistan, which is supported by a Sasanian administrative seal found there from the same period.[13] Succeeding Sasanian control of Zabulistan by the end of the 6th-century, a new group of coins are struck with an š-mint (Zabul) brand and in a design reminiscent of both Alkhan and Nezak coinage, though ultimately missing the bull-headed crown of the Nezaks and struck with the Alkhan tamga, while the Nezak ā-coinage is retained in Kāpiśī. This new issue is known as the Alkhan-Nezak Crossover, and which dynasty continued to issue coinage from the Ghazni-mint until the middle of the 7th century.[13]
The region of southern Afghanistan was first invaded by Muslim Arabs from
According André Wink:
"In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of Zamindawar (Zamin I Datbar or land of the justice giver, the classical Archosia) and Zabulistan or Zabul (Jabala,
Persia. It is clear however that in the seventh to the ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persian realm. The Arab geographers, in effect commonly speak of that king of "Al Hind" ...(who) bore the title of Zunbil."[16]
According to C. E. Bosword:
"One of the most important aspects of the early
 | The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (May 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The Kabul Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the
"We are told that it was only in 870 AD that Zabulistan was finally conquered by one
The Hindu Shahis under
However, Jayapala's army was hopeless in battle against the Ghaznavid forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.
During
Although they worship various gods, they respect the Triple Gem. There are several hundred monasteries with more than ten thousand monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. The reigning king is a man of pure faith who inherited a throne handed down through many generations. He has engaged himself in performing meritorious deeds and is intelligent and studious. There are more than ten stupas built by king Asoka. Deva-temples number several tens, and the heretics, who are in the majority, live together. Their disciples are extremely numerous, and they worship the god Śuna.
- Xuanzang, The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, 644 CE[7]
He goes on to describe the god as residing on top of a mountain in Zabul called the Śunāsīra mountain, where people came "from far and near and high and low", even attracting kings, ministers, officials and common people of regions where different customs were observed, to pay homage and make donations.[7]
They either offer gold, silver, and rare gems or present sheep, horses, and other domestic animals to the god in competition with each other to show their piety and sincerity. Therefore, gold and silver are scattered all over the ground, and sheep and horses fill up the valley. Nobody dares to covet them, for everyone is eager to make offerings to the god. To those who respect and serve the heretics and practice asceticism whole-heartedly, the god imparts magical incantations, of which the heretics make effective use in most cases; for the treatment of disease, they are quite efficacious.[5]
- Xuanzang, 644 CE
The god Śuna is again mentioned in Islamic sources in the recounting of the Saffarid conquest of Zabulistan, in the Arabic rendering Zūn (Arabic: زون). These sources mention two temples, one at Zamindawar and one at Sakkawand. The temple at Sakkawand was sacked and plundered in 870 CE.[27][28]
"It is related that, Amru Lais conferred the governorship of Zabulistan on Fardghan and sent him there at the head of four thousand horses. There was a large place of worship of the God Zhun in the country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage to the Idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temples broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolators. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais."[29]
"Fardaghan, the governor of Zabulistan region around
Amr ibn Layth, plundered Sakawand, a place of pilgrimage to God Zhun, which was within the kingdom of the Shahis."[30]
"The activities of the Saffarid brothers on the Indian frontier attracted special attention in the Caliphate thanks to the care they took to send exotic presents from the plunder to the Abbasid court. Yaqub, for instance, at one time sent fifty gold and silver idols from Kabul to the caliph Al-Mutamid who dispatched them to Mecca. Another set of Idols lavishly decorated with jewels and silver, sent by him, Amr in 896 from Sakawand (a place in the Logar valley between Ghazni and Kabul which the sources describe as a pilgrimage centre dedicated to God Zhun), caused a sensation in Baghdad on account of their strangeness."[31]
Sakawand was a major centre of Hindu pilgrimage.[27][28]
"It is related that, Amru Lais conferred the governorship of Zabulistan on Fardghan and sent him there at the head of four thousand horses. There was a large place of worship of the God Zhun in the country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage to the Idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temples broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolators. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais."[29]
There was a large Hindu place of worship in that country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage from the most remote parts of Hindustan to the idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led bis army against it, took the temple, broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais, informing him of the conquest, and asking for reinforcements.
Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazni and decided to destroy it. He, therefore, invaded Ghazni, but was defeated
When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan, he led his army against Sakawand, a large Hindu place of worship in that country with a temple and many idols. He took the temple, broke the idols into pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. He informed Amr ibn Lais of the conquest and asked for reinforcements. When the news of the fall of Sakawand reached Kamalu, who was Rai of Hindustan, he collected an innumerable army and marched towards Zabulistan to- take revenge.
.png)