Ninlil
Ninlil | |
---|---|
Wife of Enlil | |
Other names | Sud, Kutušar, Mullilu |
Major cult center | |
Personal information | |
Parents | Nisaba and Ḫaya |
Consort | Enlil |
Children | |
Equivalents | |
Syrian equivalent | Athirat |
Assyrian equivalent | Mullissu and possibly Šerua |
Ninlil (𒀭𒎏𒆤
At an early date Ninlil was identified with the goddess Sud from
In Syrian cities such as Mari, Emar and Ugarit, Ninlil was closely associated with the local goddess Shalash, the spouse of Dagan, a god regarded as analogous to Enlil. This equivalence is also attested in Hurrian religion, in which Shalash was the spouse of Kumarbi, another god regarded as similar to Enlil. However, Ninlil is also attested as a distinct deity in Hurrian texts, and could serve as a divine witness of treaties in this context.
In the
Name
Through most of the third millennium BCE, Ninlil's name was written with the
A variant
According to the god list An = Anum, an alternate name of Ninlil was Sud,[7] written dSU.KUR.RU.[8] It originally referred to the tutelary deity of Shuruppak, who was syncretised with Ninlil.[8] Jeremiah Peterson proposes that the Sumerian writing of Sud's name was misunderstood as an Akkadian noun based on a single copy of the Nippur god list in which a deity named dsu-kur-ru-um occurs.[9] A different interpretation has been suggested by Manfred Krebernik , who argues this entry has no relation to Sud and represents a deified cult emblem, specifically a lance (Akkadian: šukurrum).[10] The deified lance is elsewhere attested in association with the god Wer.[11]
Character
As the wife of Enlil, Ninlil was believed to be responsible for similar spheres of life, and stood on the top of the pantheon alongside him.[12] Like him, she was believed to be in charge of the determination of fates, and in a few inscriptions even takes precedence over him in this role.[13] A late hymn states that she was the ruler of both earth and heaven, and that Enlil made no decision without her.[12] Kings from the Third Dynasty of Ur considered both of them to be the source of earthly royal authority.[13] In literary texts, she could be described as responsible for appointing other deities to their positions alongside her husband. For example, a hymn credits the couple with bestowing Inanna's position upon her.[14] Another states that Nergal was entrusted with the underworld by them both.[15] In yet another composition, they are also credited with giving Ninisina "broad wisdom created by an august hand".[15] Nuska was also believed to owe his position to a decree of both Enlil and Ninlil.[16] It has been suggested that an entire standardized series of hymns describing how various deities were appointed to their positions this way existed.[17]
Due to Enlil's position as the father of gods, Ninlil could be analogously viewed as the mother of gods.[10] In a compilation of temple hymns (ETCSL 4.80.1. in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature) she is one of the four goddesses described as ama, "mother", the other three being Nintur (a goddess of birth), Ninisina and Bau.[18] It is possible that Ninlil could also be referred to with the epithet tamkartum, a rare feminine form of the word tamkarum, "merchant".[19] Enlil could be described as a divine merchant (ddam-gar3), which according to Jeremiah Peterson might mean that dta-am-kart-tum attested in a fragment of a non-standard Old Babylonian god list from Nippur is a name of Ninlil referring to a similar role.[19]
Like many other deities, she could be compared to a cow, though this does not indicate an association with cattle or
In
It has been argued that through the history of ancient Mesopotamian religion, the domain of Ninlil continued to expand,[22] sometimes at the expense of other goddesses.[23]
Ninlil and Sud
It is agreed that Ninlil fully absorbed the goddess Sud,[24] like her viewed as the spouse of Enlil.[25] Her association with this god goes back to the Early Dynastic period.[8] A mythological explanation made Ninlil a name Sud received after getting married.[26] The syncretism between them is attested in the god list An = Anum,[7] but in the older Weidner god list Sud appears not with Enlil and Ninlil, but rather among the medicine goddesses, next to Gula.[10]
The process of conflation meant that some associations originally exclusive to Sud could be transferred to Ninlil as well.
Hurrian reception
Ninlil was also incorporated into Hurrian religion, where she and Enlil were regarded as two of the so-called "
Assyrian reception
From the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I onward, Ninlil started to be viewed as the wife of the Assyrian head god, Ashur.[31] The equivalence between Ninlil understood as spouse of Enlil and Mullissu understood as spouse of Ashur is well attested in Neo-Assyrian sources.[32]
It has been argued that Mullissu's newfound position might have resulted in conflation with
Associations with other deities
Family
Ninlil's husband was Enlil.[8] As early as in the Early Dynastic Period, they are attested as a couple in sources from Abu Salabikh and Ur.[36] The relationship between them is further affirmed by most of the later major god lists: the Weidner god list, the Nippur god list, the Isin god list, the Mari god list, Old Babylonian An = Anum forerunner and An = Anum itself.[8] As Nilil's husband, Enlil could be called "the allure of her heart" (Sumarian: ḫi-li šag4-ga-na).[37] It has been pointed out that in some cases, they functioned as unity in religious texts.[38] A certain Enlilalša, a governor of Nippur, acted as a priest of both Enlil and Ninlil, though the terms used to refer to these functions are not identical (nu-eš3 and gudu4, respectively).[39]
The myth Enlil and Sud indicates that Ninlil was regarded as the daughter of
As the wife of Enlil, Ninlil could be regarded as the mother of
While a number of sources attest that Ninlil could be regarded as the mother of Ninazu, according to Frans Wiggermann this tradition might only be a result of the growing influence of Nergal on this god's character, which was also responsible for his role as a divine warrior.[48] He points out that in other sources Ninazu was the son of Ereshkigal and a nameless male deity, presumably to be identified with Gugalanna, which reflected his own character as a god of the underworld.[48] Ninazu is nonetheless one of the children born in the myth Enlil and Ninlil, where his brothers are Nanna, Meslamtaea (Nergal) and Enbilulu.[48] The last of these deities was responsible for irrigation, and in another tradition was a son of Ea, rather than Enlil and Ninlil.[49]
Ninlil could also be identified with Nintur, who was regarded as the mother of another of Enlil's sons, Pabilsaĝ.[50] In a hymn, she is credited with bestowing various titles and abilities on Ninisina,[51] who is well attested as Pabilsag's wife.[52]
Court
Ninlil's sukkal (attendant deity) was most likely the goddess Bizilla.[53][54] In a star list, Bizilla corresponds to the "star of abundance," mulḫé-gál-a-a, which in turn is labeled as the sukkal of Ninlil in the astronomical compendium MUL.APIN.[53] In most other contexts, Bizilla was closely associated with the love goddess Nanaya.[55] An explanatory temple list known from Neo-Babylonian Sippar,[56] arranged according to a geographic principle, states that a temple of Bizilla existed in Ḫursaĝkalama, a cult center of Ninlil.[57]
Ninĝidru (written dNIN.PA; a second possible reading is Ninĝešduru[58]) fulfills the role of a sukkal in a hymn to Sud, where she is described as responsible for receiving visitors in her mistress' temple.[59] She is also mentioned alongside Sud in a fragment of an inscription of an unidentified ruler (ensi) of Shuruppak from the Sargonic period.[58] Christopher Metcalf assumes that Ningidru should be considered a male deity,[58] but other authors consider her to be a goddess.[60][59] Her name indicates she was a divine representation of the sceptre, and she was closely associated with the deified crown, Ninmena.[59]
Another courtier of Ninlil was her throne bearer Nanibgal,[61] who was initially synonymous with Nisaba but came to be viewed as a distinct deity later on.[62] Her other servants, known from the god list An = Anum, were an udug (in this context the term denotes a protective spirit) of her temple Kiur named Lu-Ninlilla and a counselor named Guduga.[61]
A hymn to Sud from the reign of
Ninlil and Shalash
The god list An = Anum attests that the Syrian goddess
A trilingual list from
Worship
Ninlil was chiefly worshiped in the cult centers of her husband Enlil.
A further cult center of Ninlil was Tummal, attested in sources from the Ur III period already.[85] It was located in the proximity of Nippur and Puzrish-Dagan, and might correspond to modern Tell Dalham, located 21 kilometers south of the former of those two ancient cities in modern Iraq.[85] Piotr Steinkeller proposes that it was initially a cult center of Ninhursag, and that she was replaced at some point with Ninlil, but this view is not supported by other researchers.[86] E-Tummal also functioned as an alternate name of Ninlil's main temple in Nippur.[87] In the Ur III period, a festival taking place in Tummal was centered on Ninlil symbolically renewing the king's legitimacy by decreeing his fate.[88] It has been suggested that it was also a celebration of her marriage to Enlil, and that various songs referring to sexual encounters between them might be related to it, though no direct evidence for the latter theory is currently available.[89]
It has been proposed that a further location associated with Ninlil was NUN.KID from the Archaic City List, a document from the Early Dynastic Period, but this is unlikely as the orthography of the name varies between sources, and there is no basis to assume it was read as Ninlil or associated with her in some way.[90]
It is possible that a temple of Ninlil attested in inscriptions of Rim-Sîn I, Eninbišetum ("house worthy of its lady") was located in Ur.[91] It should not be confused with a similarly named temple of Ninshubur, Eninbitum (also "house worthy of its lady"), mentioned by the same ruler and most likely located in the same city.[91]
Ninlil was also worshiped in Dur-Kurigalzu, and a temple dedicated to her, the Egašanantagal ("house of the lady on high") was built there by king Kurigalzu I from the Kassite dynasty of Babylon.[92]
In the first millennium BCE, according to Joan Goodnick Westenholz specifically during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina II (721-710 BCE), Ninlil was also introduced to Ḫursaĝkalamma, a part of Kish, replacing the older deity worshiped there, Ishtar.[54] The details of this process are presently unknown, though it is possible the goddess of Ḫursaĝkalamma was at this point understood not as a manifestation of Ishtar but as an ištaru, a generic term referring to female deities, and therefore could be assigned the name Ninlil without any type of syncretism occurring.[54] Ninlil's temple there was known as E-Ḫursaĝkalamma ("house, mountain of the land").[93] A ziggurat possibly dedicated to her, Ekurmah ("house, exalted mountain"), also existed in the same location.[80] It has also been proposed that she was worshiped in the akitu temple of Zababa in Kish.[94] A festival held in Babylon in honor of Gula involved Ninlil, as well as Bizilla, both of whom acted as the divine representatives of Kish, alongside Belet Eanna (Inanna of Uruk), Belet Ninua ("Lady of Nineveh") and the deity dKAŠ.TIN.NAM, possibly to be identified as a late form of the beer goddess Ninkasi.[95]
A further temple of Ninlil, Emebišedua (house built for its me), which was also a temple of Enlil, is known from the Canonical Temple List, but its location is not known.[96]
Sud in Mesopotamian religion
Sud's main cult center was Shuruppak (modern Fara).[61] The name of the city was written the same as that of its tutelary goddess, though with a different determinative, SU.KUR.RUki rather than dSU.KUR.RU, similar to how the names of Enlil and Nisaba could be used to represent Nippur and Eresh, respectively.[61] Much information about the religious life of this city has been obtained from administrative texts, and it is known that in addition to Sud, deities such as Nisaba, Ninkasi, Ninmug and Ninshubur were also worshiped there.[97] Sud's importance in the local pantheon is reflected in the number of theophoric names invoking her.[61] At the same time, there is relatively little evidence regarding her worship outside of Shuruppak, and she is absent from earliest sources from cities such as Lagash and Ur.[61] She is nonetheless attested in early texts from Abu Salabikh[61] and Adab.[98] In the latter of these two cities she appears in theophoric names from the Early Dynastic period, such as Sud-anzu and Sud-dazi.[98] She does not appear in any offering lists from Adab predating the Sargonic period.[98]
It is commonly assumed that Sud ceased to be worshiped under own name with the decline of Shuruppak,
A recently published hymn mentioning Bur-Suen indicates that Sud was regarded as responsible for granting him the right to rule.
In the Old Babylonian period, Shuruppak became a subject of antiquarian interest for Mesopotamian scholars.
Mythology
Enlil and Ninlil
Ninlil appears in the myth Enlil and Ninlil.[26] Most of the known copies come from Nippur, though it was apparently also known in Sippar.[111] In the beginning Ninlil, portrayed as inexperienced, is warned by her mother, in this composition named Nunbaršegunu,[31] to avoid the advances of Enlil.[26] After encountering him, Ninlil initially resists, but after consulting his advisor Nuska Enlil accomplishes his goal and seduces and impregnates her.[26] For his transgression, he has to be judged by the "fifty great gods" and "the seven gods of destinies."[112] According to Wilfred G. Lambert, both terms are rare in Mesopotamian religious literature, and presumably refer to major deities of the pantheon treated as a group.[112] They deem him ritually impure and exile him from Nippur.[26] It is a matter of ongoing debate in scholarship if Enlil's crime was rape or merely premarital sex resulting in deflowering.[113] Ninlil follows him during his exile, even though he refuses to see her, and eventually ends up becoming pregnant multiple times,[114] giving birth to Nanna, Nergal, Ninazu and Enbilulu.[115] Alhena Gadotti argues that while the first encounter between them is arguably described as nonconsensual,[116] this does not seem to apply to the remaining three ones.[117] There is no indication that Enlil and Ninlil became husband and wife in the end, and only he receives praise in the closing lines of the composition.[118]
Ninlil's status in Enlil and Ninlil has been described as that of a "subordinate consort".[118] It has been pointed out that this portrayal does not appear to reflect her position in Mesopotamian religion, especially in the state pantheon of the Third Dynasty of Ur.[118] The absence of Ninurta among the children has also been noted.[31]
Enlil and Sud
Ninlil is also one of the main characters in the myth Enlil and Sud, also known as Marriage of Sud.[119] Due to the difference in her portrayal, it is sometimes contrasted with Enlil and Ninlil in scholarship.[26] It describes how she became Enlil's wife.[120] Copies are known from Nippur, Susa, Nineveh, Sultantepe and possibly Sippar.[121] Miguel Civil noted that the text had "wide diffusion attested not only by the relatively high number of sources preserved and their geographical distribution, but also by its long survival through Middle-Babylonian times and into the Assyrian libraries."[122] For uncertain reasons, no reference to Shuruppak is made as any point, and Sud lives with her mother Nisaba[99] in Eresh.[119]
In the beginning of the composition Enlil, who is portrayed as a young bachelor traveling to find a wife,
It has been suggested that the portrayal of Ninlil in Enlil and Sud was informed by her position in the state pantheon of the Third Dynasty of Ur.[118]
Other myths
Sud appears in some copies of
Ninlil is mentioned in a myth only known from a single Old Babylonian fragment detailing the origin of the god
References
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- ^ Wang 2011, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Wang 2011, p. 14.
- ^ Wang 2011, pp. 89–90.
- ^ a b c d e Krebernik 1998a, p. 453.
- ^ Krebernik 1998a, p. 459.
- ^ a b Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 80.
- ^ a b c d e Krebernik 1998a, p. 454.
- ^ Peterson 2009, p. 72.
- ^ a b c d Krebernik 1998a, p. 455.
- ^ Krebernik 2013a, p. 269.
- ^ a b c d Krebernik 1998a, p. 460.
- ^ a b Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 66.
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- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 63.
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- ^ a b c Wiggermann 1998, p. 330.
- ^ Schwemer 2001, p. 90.
- ^ Krebernik 2005, p. 163.
- ^ Zólyomi 2010, p. 427.
- ^ Krebernik 2005, pp. 162–163.
- ^ a b George 1993, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 112.
- ^ Westenholz 1997, pp. 58–59.
- ^ George 1993, p. 49.
- ^ George 1993, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d Metcalf 2019, p. 15.
- ^ a b c d Peterson 2020, p. 125.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 165.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Krebernik 1998a, p. 457.
- ^ McEwan 1998, p. 151.
- ^ Peterson 2020, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Peterson 2020, p. 126.
- ^ Feliu 2007, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 634.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 289.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 230.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 294.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 246.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 302.
- ^ Tugendhaft 2016, p. 175.
- ^ Tugendhaft 2016, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Archi 2004, pp. 329–330.
- ^ Wang 2011, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b c George 1993, p. 112.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 101.
- ^ George 1993, p. 153.
- ^ George 1993, p. 106.
- ^ a b George 1993, p. 117.
- ^ George 1993, p. 148.
- ^ George 1993, p. 127.
- ^ George 1993, p. 65.
- ^ George 1993, p. 161.
- ^ a b Hilgert 2014, p. 183.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 27.
- ^ George 1993, p. 151.
- ^ Sharlach 2005, p. 22.
- ^ a b Peterson 2019, p. 49.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 41.
- ^ a b George 1993, p. 134.
- ^ George 1993, p. 90.
- ^ George 1993, p. 101.
- ^ George 1993, p. 171.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 124.
- ^ George 1993, p. 122.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 58.
- ^ a b c Such-Gutiérrez 2005, p. 31.
- ^ a b c d e Metcalf 2019, p. 10.
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- ^ a b c Metcalf 2019, p. 11.
- ^ George 1993, p. 75.
- ^ a b George 1993, p. 110.
- ^ Metcalf 2019, p. 17.
- ^ George 1993, p. 141.
- ^ George 1993, p. 143.
- ^ a b Streck 2013, p. 334.
- ^ Lambert 2013, p. 286.
- ^ George 1993, p. 22.
- ^ George 1993, p. 6.
- ^ Viano 2016, p. 37.
- ^ a b Lambert 2013, p. 194.
- ^ Gadotti 2009, p. 73.
- ^ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, pp. 146–147.
- ^ Wiggermann 1998a, p. 330.
- ^ Gadotti 2009, p. 79.
- ^ Gadotti 2009, p. 81.
- ^ a b c d Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 147.
- ^ a b c d e Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 145.
- ^ Civil 2017, p. 423.
- ^ Viano 2016, p. 41.
- ^ Civil 2017, p. 421.
- ^ a b c d e f Civil 2017, p. 443.
- ^ Civil 2017, pp. 443–444.
- ^ Civil 2017, p. 445.
- ^ Civil 2017, p. 448.
- ^ a b Civil 2017, p. 446.
- ^ Lambert 2017, p. 453.
- ^ Krebernik 1998, pp. 386–387.
- ^ Krebernik 1998, p. 387.
- ^ a b George 2015, p. 7.
- ^ Krebernik 2013, p. 242.
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- Westenholz, Joan Goodnick (1997). "Nanaya: Lady of Mystery". In Finkel, I. L.; Geller, M. J. (eds.). Sumerian Gods and their Representations. STYX Publications. ISBN 978-90-56-93005-9.
- Wiggermann, Frans A. M. (1998), "Nergal A. Philological", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-05-23
- Wiggermann, Frans A. M. (1998a), "Nin-azu", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-05-26
- Zólyomi, Gabor (2010). "Hymns to Ninisina and Nergal on the Tablets Ash 1911.235 and Ni 9672". Your praise is sweet : a memorial volume for Jeremy Black from students, colleagues and friends. London: British Institute for the Study of Iraq. OCLC 612335579.
External links
- Enlil and Ninlil in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
- Enlil and Sud in the ETCSL
- An adab to Ninlil (Ninlil A) in the ETCSL
- The Temple Hymns in the ETCSL
- Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur in the ETCSL