Dagon
Dagan | |
---|---|
God of prosperity and Syrian father of gods | |
Hebat | |
Equivalents | |
Mesopotamian equivalent | Enlil |
Hurrian equivalent | Kumarbi |
Ugaritic equivalent | El |
Deities of the ancient Near East |
---|
Religions of the ancient Near East |
Dagon (Hebrew: דָּגוֹן, Dāgōn) or Dagan (Sumerian: 𒀭𒁕𒃶, romanized: dda-gan;[1] Phoenician: 𐤃𐤂𐤍, romanized: Dāgān) was a god worshipped in ancient Syria across the middle of the Euphrates, with primary temples located in Tuttul and Terqa, though many attestations of his cult come from cities such as Mari and Emar as well. In settlements situated in the upper Euphrates area he was regarded as the "father of gods" similar to Mesopotamian Enlil or Hurrian Kumarbi, as well as a lord of the land, a god of prosperity, and a source of royal legitimacy. A large number of theophoric names, both masculine and feminine, attests that he was a popular deity. He was also worshiped further east, in Mesopotamia, where many rulers regarded him as the god capable of granting them kingship over the western areas.
Attestations of Dagan from coastal areas are much less frequent and come mostly from the northern city of Ugarit, where Dagan's cult had a limited scope. According to the Hebrew Bible, Dagan was also the national god of the Philistines, with temples at Ashdod and Gaza, but there is no extrabiblical evidence confirming this.[2] The extrasolar object designated Fomalhaut b is named after Dagon.
Etymology
Multiple origins have been proposed for Dagan's name.
According to Philo of Byblos, the Phoenician author Sanchuniathon explained Dagon as a word for "grain " (siton).[3] Historian Manfred Hutter considers it possible that the god's name derives from the root *dgn (to be cloudy), which he interprets as a sign that he was originally a weather god.[4] However, the notion of Dagan being a weather god is rejected by most researchers of this deity (see the Dagan and weather gods section below).
Lluís Feliu in his monograph The God Dagan in Bronze Age Syria rejects both of these theories and concludes that Dagan's name originated in a pre-Semitic language spoken in inland Syria.
The association with a Hebrew word for "fish" (as in Hebrew: דג, Tib. /dɔːg/) in medieval exegesis has led to an incorrect interpretation of Dagan as a fish god.[3]
Divine genealogy and syncretism
No known text deals with the parentage or creation of Dagan.
While
Dagan, Enlil and Kumarbi
In
In Hurrian tradition, Dagan was equated with Kumarbi,[25] though only because of shared senior position in the respective pantheons.[26] Kumarbi was nonetheless called "the Dagan of the Hurrians,"[10] and Shalash was viewed as his spouse due to this syncretic process.[27] However, she is absent from Hurrian myths about Kumarbi.
Dagan and weather gods
Due to the similarity between the names of Dagan's wife Shalash and Shala, wife of Adad in Mesopotamia, some researches conclude that the two goddesses were the same and that Dagan was possibly a weather god himself.[28] However, there is no clear proof that Dagan fulfilled such a function or that he was conflated with any weather gods.[29][30]
Dagan and Nisaba
In some documents from Syrian cities, for example Halab and Ugarit, the logogram dNISABA designates Dagan.[31] As noted by Alphonso Archi, in Western Semitic languages such as Ugaritic Dagan's name was homophonous with the word for grain (dgn in alphabetic Ugaritic texts), and the logographic writing of his name as dNISABA was likely a form of wordplay popular among scribes, relying on the fact that the name of Nisaba, the Mesopotamian goddess of writing, could simply be understood as "grain" too.[32]
Character
Dagan's character is difficult to study in comparison to that of gods who held a comparable position in Mesopotamia (such as Enlil or Marduk) due to the lack of mythical narratives or hymns about him and comparatively small number of other documents, though researchers were nonetheless able to determine some of his functions.[33][34]
Sources from Emar, Aleppo and Mari attest that Dagan was an archetypal "father of gods" and a creator figure.[35] This aspect of his character was likely exemplified by the epithet "lord of the offspring" connected to the zukru festival from Emar.[36] His connection to funerary offerings was most likely an extension of his role as a divine ancestor, and modern theories regarding him as an underworld god are most likely erroneous.[37]
One of Dagan's best documented functions was guaranteeing abundant harvests of grain.[30] However, he was not an agricultural god but rather the source of prosperity in general.[31]
In 3rd millennium BCE Tuttul Dagan was the god believed to bestow kingship upon rulers.[38] He had a similar role in Mari.[39][13] There is also some evidence that he could be invoked as a divine witness of oaths.[40]
According to texts from Ebla, Dagan's attributes were a chariot and a mace.[41]
Worship
Dagan's primary cult centers were
In Ebla, Dagan was usually referred to with titles such as "lord of Tuttul" (dBAD Du-du-luki) or "lord of the country" (dBAD KALAMTIM), but a phonetic spelling can be found in personal names.[50] References to him as Bel Terqa – "Lord of Terqa" – are known from Eblaite sources too.[39][51] Shalash was already regarded as his wife in this period.[50] Representatives of the city of Nagar swore allegiance to the king of Ebla in the temple of Dagan in Tuttul,[52] which was viewed as a neutral third party.[53] While certain other gods known from the Eblaite texts, such as Hadabal and Kura, disappear from records after the fall of the city, Dagan's cult continued and retained its prestige.[54]
In Mari, Dagan and Addu (Hadad) were protectors of the king and played a role in
In Emar, Dagan was the most senior god in offering lists, preceding the weather god (Baal/Hadad) and the city god, whose name was written logographically as NIN.URTA.[60] An important celebration dedicated to him in this location was so-called erēb Dagan, "entry of Dagan."[61] It took the form of a cultic journey of a statue, similar to celebrations of deities such as Lagamal or Belet Nagar attested in the same region.[61] He was also celebrated during the zukru festival.[62] Another festival dedicated to him known from documents from Emar was kissu,[63] which most likely took place in Šatappi, a city possibly located further south.[64] The precise meaning of the term kissu remains uncertain, making the nature of these celebrations, and roles of specific deities in them, difficult to ascertain.[64] It has been proposed that the presence of underworld deities – Shuwala and Ugur – indicates that it represented the periodic death and return to life of a deity, possibly Dagan's spouse, but this remains speculative.[65]
Ḫammu-rāpi, who around 1400 BCE ruled the area comprising the former independent Kingdom of Khana, used the title "governor of Ilaba and Dagan."[66]
Due to the scarcity of sources, the later history of Dagan's cult remains unclear, though it is evident that he was no longer the head god of the upper Euphrates area in later times. The head of the Aramean pantheon known from sources from the first millennium BCE was Hadad.[67]
Mesopotamian reception
Mesopotamian rulers saw Dagan as the lord of the western lands (e.g., ancient Syria) and thanked him for enabling their conquests in that area.[68] Inscriptions credit Dagan with granting Sargon of Akkad rule over the "Upper Land" and the cities of Ebla, Mari and Yarmuti in particular, as well as over areas as distant as the "cedar forest and silver mountains."[69] To gain Dagan's favor, Sargon prayed to him in Tuttul.[70] An inscription from the reign of Naram-Sin describes inhabitants of the western frontier of his empire "as far as (the city of) Ulišum" as "people whom the god Dagan had given to him."[71]
In Mesopotamian sources, Dagan is sometimes regarded as equal in rank to the great city gods of
In the
A few of the early
A šubtu (a type of shrine
Itti-Marduk-balatu, a king from the Second Dynasty of Isin (middle Babylonian period), called himself Dagan's regent.[79]
The
Mythology
In the Mesopotamian god list An = Anum, Dagan was placed in the circle of Enlil, similar to another western deity, Ishara.[81] The same document equates him with Enlil and his wife Shalash with Ninlil.[12]
There is some evidence that in Mesopotamia Dagan was connected with the poorly known tradition about conflict between the gods and Enmesharra, for example a passage stating that "with Dagan's authority [gods] have been guarding Enmešarra from time immemorial" is known; Dagan might however be a synonym of Enlil rather than a distinct deity in this context according to Wilfred G. Lambert.[82]
The fragmentary myth Uraš and
A legendary king of Purushanda who serves as an opponent of Sargon of Akkad in the epic King of Battle bears the name Nūr-Dagan.[84]
Ugarit
Evidence from the coastal city of Ugarit is inconclusive. Whether a temple initially often identified as Dagan's was dedicated to him rather than El is a matter of scholarly debate.[85]
In lists of gods and offerings from Ugarit, Dagan sometimes follows El but precedes Baal.
Dagan appears in six theophoric names known from Ugarit, and possibly in a seventh under the logographic spelling dKUR; for comparison
Dagan, El, and Baal's parentage
Dagan plays no active role in Ugaritic myths (such as the
It has been argued by
Other recent studies provide various other approaches to the problem of Baal's parentage in mythical texts. Daniel Schwemer proposes that the epithet "Son of Dagan" applied to Baal in Ugaritic texts was influenced by Syrian and Hurrian tradition.
Iron Age Phoenicia
The
Later relevance
According to
The first-century Jewish historian Josephus mentions a place named Dagon above Jericho.[103] It has however been argued that some of the locations possibly named after Dagon were in reality named after the Canaanite word for grain.[104]
Jewish and Christian scriptures
In the
The account in 1 Samuel 5.2–7 relates how the Ark of the Covenant was captured by the Philistines and taken to Dagon's temple in Ashdod. The following morning the Ashdodites found the image of Dagon lying prostrate before the ark. They set the image upright, but again on the morning of the following day they found it prostrate before the ark, but this time with head and hands severed, lying on the miptān translated as "threshold" or "podium". The account continues with the puzzling words raq dāgōn nišʾar ʿālāyw, which means literally "only Dagon was left to him." (The Septuagint, Peshitta, and Targums render "Dagon" here as "trunk of Dagon" or "body of Dagon", presumably referring to the lower part of his image.[106]
Dagon is also mentioned in the First Book of Ethiopian Maccabees (12:12), which was composed sometime in the 4th century AD.[107]
Fish-god interpretation
The "fish" etymology, while late and incorrect,
The association with dāg/dâg 'fish' was made by 11th-century Jewish Bible commentator Rashi.[111] In the 13th century, David Kimhi interpreted the odd sentence in 1 Samuel 5.2–7 that "only Dagon was left to him" to mean "only the form of a fish was left", adding: "It is said that Dagon, from his navel down, had the form of a fish (whence his name, Dagon), and from his navel up, the form of a man, as it is said, his two hands were cut off." The Septuagint text of 1 Samuel 5.2–7 says that both the hands and the head of the image of Dagon were broken off.[112]
The first to cast doubt on the "fish" etymology was Hartmut Schmökel in his 1928 study of Dagan, though he initially nonetheless suggested that while Dagon was not in origin a "fish god", the association with dâg "fish" among the maritime Canaanites (Phoenicians) would have affected the god's iconography.[113] However, later he correctly identified it as a medieval invention.[114] Modern researchers not only do not accept it, but even question if Dagan/Dagon was worshiped in coastal areas in any significant capacity at all.[11]
Dagon and Marnas
In the Classical period the central temple of Gaza was dedicated to a god named Marnas (from
Marnas is mentioned in the works of the fourth century scholar and theologian Jerome, in several stories from his Life of St.
In popular culture
Dagon has appeared in many works of popular culture. However, most depend on the biblical account and associated fish god speculation rather than on primary sources and modern research.
Notable examples include
Also, the extinct prehistoric beaked whale species, Dagonodum mojnum, is named after Dagon.[125]
Notes
- ^ The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
- ISSN 1569-2116.
- ^ a b c Singer 1992, p. 433.
- ^ Hutter 1996, p. 129.
- ^ Feliu 2003, pp. 278–287.
- ^ Archi 2015, pp. 626–627.
- ^ Wilhelm 1989, p. 55.
- ^ Archi 1997, p. 418.
- ^ Taracha 2009, p. 119.
- ^ a b Archi 2013, p. 15.
- ^ a b c Stone 2013.
- ^ a b Archi 2015, p. 634.
- ^ a b c d Schwemer 2007, p. 156.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 302.
- ^ Feliu 2007, p. 90.
- ^ Frantz-Szabó & Lambert 1980, p. 176.
- ^ Black & Green 1992, p. 56.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, pp. 54–55.
- ^ a b c d e f Archi 2004, p. 324.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, p. 55.
- ^ a b Archi 2002, p. 30.
- ^ a b Archi 2004, pp. 324–325.
- ^ Archi 2004, pp. 326–327.
- ^ Archi 2004, pp. 327–328.
- ^ Archi 2013, p. 12.
- ^ Archi 2004, p. 331.
- ^ Archi 2013, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Feliu 2007, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Feliu 2007, pp. 91–92.
- ^ a b Schwemer 2007, p. 129.
- ^ a b Archi 2004, p. 332.
- ^ Archi 2004, pp. 331–332.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 304.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 625.
- ^ Feliu 2003, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Feliu 1999, p. 198.
- ^ Feliu 2003, pp. 305–306.
- ^ Schwemer 2007, p. 146.
- ^ a b c d e Archi 2004, p. 325.
- ^ Feliu 2003, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 628.
- ^ a b c Feliu 2003, p. 303.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 35.
- ^ Archi 2010, p. 4.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 134.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 136.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 139.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 141.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 142.
- ^ a b c d e Archi 2004, p. 323.
- ^ Schwemer 2007, p. 157.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 627.
- ^ Pongratz-Leisten 2012, p. 98.
- ^ Archi 2015, p. 589.
- ^ Nakata 2011, p. 130.
- ^ Nakata 2011, p. 131.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, p. 125.
- ^ Feliu 1999, p. 199.
- ^ Ayali-Darshan 2015, p. 40.
- ^ a b Schwemer 2008, p. 14.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, p. 122.
- ^ Yamada 2011, p. 151.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 221.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, p. 220.
- ^ Feliu 2003, pp. 221–222.
- ^ Nowicki 2016, p. 74.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 305.
- ^ Archi 2004, pp. 322–323.
- ^ Archi 2004, p. 322.
- ^ Sallaberger 2007, p. 424.
- ^ Nowicki 2016, p. 71.
- ^ Archi 2002, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Steinkeller 1982, p. 293.
- ^ a b Archi 2004, p. 326.
- ^ Pongratz-Leisten 2011, p. 122.
- ^ George 1992, p. 435.
- ^ George 1992, p. 393.
- ^ George 1992, p. 11.
- ^ Lambert 2013, p. 271.
- ^ Pritchard 1969, p. 558.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 54.
- ^ Lambert 2013, p. 286.
- ^ Lambert 2013, p. 311.
- ^ Lambert 2013, p. 232.
- ^ van Soldt 2016, p. 105.
- ^ Schwemer 2008, p. 10.
- ^ a b c Archi 2004, p. 328.
- ^ del Olmo Lete 2013, p. 198.
- ^ van Soldt 2016, p. 99.
- ^ Nakata 1995, p. 252.
- ^ van Soldt 2016, p. 97.
- ^ van Soldt 2016, p. 106.
- ^ Fontenrose 1957, pp. 277–279.
- ^ Feliu 2003, p. 301.
- ^ Güterbock 1983, pp. 325–326.
- ^ Archi 2004, p. 329.
- ^ Ayali-Darshan 2013, pp. 651–657.
- ^ Tugendhaft 2012, pp. 89–104.
- ^ Pritchard 1969, p. 662.
- ^ a b Singer 1992, p. 439.
- ^ Ayali-Darshan 2013, pp. 654–655.
- ^ Fontenrose 1957, p. 277.
- ^ Antiquities 12.8.1; War 1.2.3
- ^ Montalbano 1951, p. 391.
- ^ a b c Singer 1992, p. 432.
- ^ Singer 1992, pp. 432–434.
- ^ Curtin 2019.
- ^ a b Montalbano 1951, p. 395.
- ^ Wiggermann 1992, p. 182.
- ^ Wiggermann 1992, p. 183.
- ^ Rashi's commentary on 1 Samuel 5:2
- ^ Fontenrose 1957, p. 278.
- ^ Schmökel 1928.
- ^ Schmökel 1938, p. 101.
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.; Johannes Hahn: Gewalt und religiöser Konflikt; The Holy Land and the Bible .
- ^ Singer 1992, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Mussies 1990, p. 2443.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, p. 191.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, p. 182.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, p. 181.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Terpstra 2019, pp. 186–187.
- ISBN 0-671-24707-7
- ^ "Sønderjysk oldtidshval skal hedde 'Mojn'". 11 October 2016.
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