Mangosteen
Mangosteen | |
---|---|
Illustration from Fleurs, Fruits et Feuillages Choisis de l'Ile de Java 1863–1864 by Berthe Hoola van Nooten (Pieter De Pannemaeker lithographer) | |
Whole fruit and horizontal cross-section | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Malpighiales |
Family: | Clusiaceae |
Genus: | Garcinia |
Species: | G. mangostana
|
Binomial name | |
Garcinia mangostana | |
Synonyms[1] | |
|
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), also known as the purple mangosteen,
The fruit of the mangosteen is sweet and tangy, juicy, somewhat fibrous, with fluid-filled vesicles (
.Genus
Description
Tree
A tropical tree, the mangosteen must be grown in consistently warm conditions, as exposure to temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) for prolonged periods will usually kill a mature plant. They are known to recover from brief cold spells rather well, often with damage only to young growth. Experienced horticulturists have grown this species outdoors, and brought them to fruit in extreme south Florida.[6]
The tree grows from 6 to 25 metres (20 to 82 feet) tall.[5]
Fruit
The juvenile mangosteen fruit, which does not require
The subsurface chemistry of the mangosteen exocarp comprises an array of polyphenols, including
Once the developing mangosteen fruit has stopped expanding,
The edible
Often described as a subtle delicacy,
Origins and history
Cultivated mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana var.mangostana) is
Mangosteen is highly valued for its juicy, delicate texture and slightly sweet and sour flavor, the mangosteen has been cultivated in
A description of mangosteen was included in the Species Plantarum by Linnaeus in 1753. The mangosteen was introduced into English greenhouses in 1855.[16] Subsequently, its culture was introduced into the Western Hemisphere, where it became established in West Indies islands, especially Jamaica. It was later established on the Americas mainland in Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, and Ecuador. The mangosteen tree generally does not grow well outside the tropics.[citation needed]
In Southeast Asia, mangosteen is commonly known as the "Queen of Fruits", and is frequently paired with
The journalist and gourmet R. W. Apple Jr. once said of the fruit, "No other fruit, for me, is so thrillingly, intoxicatingly luscious...I'd rather eat one than a hot fudge sundae, which for a big Ohio boy is saying a lot."[18] Since 2006, private small-volume orders for fruits grown in Puerto Rico were sold to American specialty food stores and gourmet restaurants who serve the flesh segments as a delicacy dessert.[2][6]
Propagation, cultivation and harvest
Mangosteen is usually propagated by
Mangosteen produces a
When the trees are approximately 25–30 cm (10–12 in), they are transplanted to the field at a spacing of 20–40 m (66–131 ft).
The growth of the trees is retarded if the temperature is below 20 °C (68 °F). The ideal temperature range for growing and producing fruits is 25–35 °C (77–95 °F)[21] with a relative humidity over 80%.[20] The maximal temperature is 38–40 °C (100–104 °F), with both leaves and fruit being susceptible to scorching and sunburn,[20][21] while the minimum temperature is 3–5 °C (37–41 °F).[21] Young seedlings prefer a high level of shade and mature trees are shade-tolerant.[21]
Mangosteen trees have a weak root system and prefer deep, well drained soils with high moisture content, often growing on
Mangosteen trees are sensitive to water availability and application of fertilizer input which is increased with the age of trees, regardless of region.
Breeding
In breeding of perennial mangosteen, selection of rootstock and grafting are significant issues to overcome constraints to production, harvesting or seasonality.[5] Most of the genetic resources for breeding are in germplasm collections, whereas some wild species are cultivated in Malaysia and the Philippines.[5][19] Conservation methods are chosen because storage of seeds under dried and low temperature conditions has not been successful.[5]
Because of the long duration until the trees yield fruits and the long resulting breeding cycles, mangosteen breeding has not proven attractive for transplanting or research.[5][23] Breeding objectives that may enhance mangosteen production include:[23]
- Drought tolerance, especially sensitivity to drought in the first 5 years after germination
- Tree architecture to produce a tree with a crown that is regular and pyramid-shaped
- Fruit quality including i) overcoming bitter taste components caused by changes in pulp, pericarp or ariland ii) pericarp cracking resulting from excessive water uptake
- Rootstock for improved adaptation to drought and robust development in early years of growth
Yield
Mangosteen trees may reach fruit-bearing in as little as 6 years, but may require 12 or more years, depending on climate and cultivation methods.[5] The yield of the mangosteen is variable, depending on climate and age of the tree.[5][11] If the young tree is bearing for the first time, 200–300 fruits may be produced, whereas at maturity, 500 fruits per season are average.[5] At age 30 to 45 years in full maturity, each tree may yield as many as 3,000 fruits, with trees as old as 100 years still producing.[5]
Regional production
Major mangosteen production occurs in Southeast Asia, mainly in
Diseases and pests
Common diseases and pests
The
Another common disease is the thread blight or white thread blight disease (
An important post-harvest disease affecting mangosteen especially in Thailand is called Diplodia fruit rot (
There are a few pests that feed on mangosteen leaves and fruits including
Control measures for diseases and pests
Different management options can be applied to control mangosteen diseases.[19][25]
- Measures to inhibit sun scalding to minimize stem canker.
- Reduction of wounds caused by insects and storm damage to minimize disease incidence.
- Change of the microclimate by tree spacing and pruning.
- Chemicals applied to root collars and tree stumps to control root diseases.
- Fungicidesto control fungal pathogens.
- Biological pest control or insecticides to control insects.
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 305 kJ (73 kcal) |
17.91 g | |
Dietary fiber | 1.8 g |
0.58 g | |
0.41 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 2% 0.286 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 1% 0.032 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 1% 0.018 mg |
Folate (B9) | 8% 31 μg |
Vitamin C | 3% 2.9 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 1% 12 mg |
Iron | 2% 0.3 mg |
Magnesium | 3% 13 mg |
Manganese | 4% 0.102 mg |
Phosphorus | 1% 8 mg |
Potassium | 2% 48 mg |
Sodium | 0% 7 mg |
Zinc | 2% 0.21 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[26] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[27] |
Nutritional content
The
Uses
Culinary
Without fumigation or irradiation (in order to kill the Asian fruit fly), fresh mangosteens were illegal to import into the United States until 2007.[29] Following export from its natural growing regions in Southeast Asia (particularly Thailand), the fresh fruit is available seasonally in some local markets in North America such as those of Chinatowns.[6][30] Mangosteens are available fresh, canned and frozen in Western countries. The fruit may be served as a dessert or made into jams.[11] In Vietnam, the ripe fruit is also used as a salad ingredient.[31]
Upon arrival in the US in 2007, fresh mangosteens sold at up to $130/kg ($60/lb) in specialty produce stores in New York City, but wider availability and somewhat lower prices have become common in the United States and Canada.[7][30] Despite efforts described above to grow mangosteen in the Western Hemisphere, nearly the entire supply is imported from Thailand.[32]
Before ripening, the mangosteen shell is fibrous and firm, but becomes soft and easy to pry open when the fruit ripens. To open a mangosteen, the shell can be scored with a knife, pried gently along the score with the thumbs until it cracks, and then pulled apart to reveal the fruit.[11] Alternatively, the mangosteen can be opened without a knife by squeezing the shell from the bottom until it breaks, allowing the shell to be removed and the fruit eaten while intact with the stem.[33] In Southeast Asian countries, the mangosteen is usually served with the bottom part of the shell intact. [34] Occasionally, during peeling of ripe fruits, the purple exocarp juice may stain skin or fabric.[11]
Traditional medicine
Various parts of the plant have a history of use in traditional medicine, mostly in Southeast Asia; it may have been used to treat skin infections, wounds, dysentery, urinary tract infections, and gastrointestinal complaints,[5][35] although there is no high-quality clinical evidence for any of these effects.[36]
Dried fruits are shipped to Singapore to be processed for
Natural dye
The extract of mangosteen peels is traditionally used in Indonesia as natural dye for coloring of brown, dark brown, purple or red hues applied to tenun ikat and batik textiles.[38]
Other uses
Mangosteen twigs have been used as
Phytochemicals
Mangosteen peel contains
Marketing
Fresh mangosteen is marketed for only a short period of six to ten weeks due to its seasonal nature.
References
- ^ a b "Garcinia mangostana L." Plant of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Stone, Daniel (26 May 2016). "Meet the mangosteen". The Plate. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
- ^ PMC 10020034.
- .
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Morton, Julia F (1987). "Mangosteen". Fruits of warm climates. Purdue University. pp. 301–304. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Karp, David (9 August 2006). "Forbidden? Not the Mangosteen". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ a b c d Karp, David (8 August 2007). "Mangosteens Arrive, but Be Prepared to Pay". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The plant book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- ^ "Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae)". Montoso Gardens. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ Simon PW (26 May 1996). "Plant Pigments for Color and Nutrition". US Department of Agriculture, republished from HortScience 32(1):12–13, 1997.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Crown I (2014). "Science: Mangosteen information". Mangosteen.com. The mangosteen website.
- ^ MacLeod AJ, Pieris NM. Volatile flavour components of mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana" Phytochemistry 21:117–9, 1982
- .
- .
- ISBN 9780521010320. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ "Mangosteen". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ a b "The King and Queen of Fruits: the Durian and Mangosteen - Flora and Fauna - 103 Meridian East, Singapore". meridian103.com.
- ^ Apple RW (24 September 2003). "Forbidden Fruit: Something About A Mangosteen". New York Times. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
- ^ ISBN 0854328173.
- ^ ISBN 92-5-103459-1.
- ^ a b c d e f Diczbalis, Yan (2011). "Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing for Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)". Elevitch C.R.
- ^ Paull RE, Duarte O (2012). Mangosteen. Crop Production Science in Horticulture.
- ^ a b Te-chato, Sompong; Lim, Mongkol (2005). "7.1 Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen". In Litz, R. E. (ed.). Biotechnology of Fruit and Nut Crops. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing.
- ^ "Fruit Seasons in Thailand". Sansaket Farm.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lim TK, Sangchote S (2003). "16 Diseases on Mangosteen". In Ploetz RC (ed.). Diseases of Tropical Fruit Crops. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- ^ "Mangosteen, canned, syrup pack, per 100 g". FoodData Central, National Nutrient Database, US Department of Agriculture. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
- ^ Karp, David (27 June 2007). "Welcome at the border: Thai fruits, once banned". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ a b Hannah Beech (22 June 2020). "Eating Thai fruit demands serious effort but delivers sublime reward". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ "Mangosteen salad". Binh Duong Government. 1 January 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
- ^ "Market Potential for Mangosteen and Salaaca" (PDF). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
- ^ "How To Open A Mangosteen". Thailand Breeze. 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
- ^ "How to open a mangosteen properly". Thai Solutions. 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
- ^ S2CID 23701150.
- ^ a b Gross P, Crown I (21 May 2009). "The Mangosteen Controversy". New Hope Network. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
- ^ "Mangosteen uses". WebMD. 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
- .
- ^ "Mangosteen price too low: farmers". The Nation. 31 July 2007. Archived from the original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ Temple-West, Patrick (5 March 2008). "Tropical sweetness: harnessing the elusive mangosteen". Medill Reports. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
External links
- Media related to Garcinia mangostana at Wikimedia Commons