Pantothenic acid
Names | |
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Preferred IUPAC name
3-[(2R)-2,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethylbutanamido]propanoic acid | |
Systematic IUPAC name
3-[(2R)-(2,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethylbutanoyl)amino]propanoic acid | |
Identifiers | |
3D model (
JSmol ) |
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3DMet | |
1727062, 1727064 (R) | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
DrugBank | |
ECHA InfoCard
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100.009.061 |
EC Number |
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KEGG | |
MeSH | Pantothenic+Acid |
PubChem CID
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RTECS number
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UNII |
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CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |
C9H17NO5 | |
Molar mass | 219.237 g·mol−1 |
Appearance | Yellow oil Colorless crystals (Ca2+ salt) |
Odor | Odorless |
Density | 1.266 g/cm3 1.32 g/cm3 (Ca2+ salt)[1] |
Melting point | 183.833 °C (362.899 °F; 456.983 K) 196–200 °C (385–392 °F; 469–473 K) decomposes (Ca2+ salt)[1][3][5] |
Very soluble[2] 2.11 g/mL (Ca2+ salt)[1] | |
Solubility | Very soluble in C6H6, ether[2] Ca2+ salt: Slightly soluble in alcohol, CHCl3[3] |
log P | −1.416[4] |
Acidity (pKa) | 4.41[5] |
Basicity (pKb) | 9.698 |
Chiral rotation ([α]D)
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+37.5° +24.3° (Ca2+ salt)[5] |
Hazards | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): | |
LD50 (median dose)
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> 10 mg/g (Ca2+ salt)[3] |
Related compounds | |
Related alkanoic acids
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Arginine Hopantenic acid 4-(γ-Glutamylamino)butanoic acid |
Related compounds
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Panthenol |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is a
Pantothenic acid is the combination of
Definition
Pantothenic acid is a water-soluble
Use in biosynthesis of coenzyme A
Pantothenic acid is a precursor to CoA via a five-step process. The biosynthesis requires pantothenic acid, cysteine, and four equivalents of ATP (see figure).[11]
- Pantothenic acid is phosphorylated to 4′-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme pantothenate kinase. This is the committed step in CoA biosynthesis and requires ATP.[12]
- A phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase to form 4'-phospho-N-pantothenoylcysteine (PPC). This step is coupled with ATP hydrolysis.[12]
- PPC is 4′-phosphopantetheine by phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase
- 4′-Phosphopantetheine is adenylated (or more properly, AMPylated) to form dephospho-CoA by the enzyme phosphopantetheine adenylyl transferase
- Finally, dephospho-CoA is phosphorylated to coenzyme A by the enzyme dephosphocoenzyme A kinase. This final step also requires ATP.[12]
This pathway is suppressed by
Coenzyme A is necessary in the reaction mechanism of the
Dietary recommendations
The US Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for B vitamins in 1998. At that time there was not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs for pantothenic acid. In instances such as this, the Board sets Adequate Intakes (AIs), with the understanding that at some later date, AIs may be replaced by more exact information.[10][18]
The current AI for teens and adults ages 14 and up is 5 mg/day. This was based in part on the observation that for a typical diet, urinary excretion was approximately 2.6 mg/day, and that bioavailability of food-bound pantothenic acid was roughly 50%.[10] AI for pregnancy is 6 mg/day. AI for lactation is 7 mg/day. For infants up to 12 months the AI is 1.8 mg/day. For children ages 1–13 years the AI increases with age from 2 to 4 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[10][18]
Age group | Age | Adequate intake[10] |
---|---|---|
Infants | 0–6 months | 1.7 mg |
Infants | 7–12 months | 1.8 mg |
Children | 1–3 years | 2 mg |
Children | 4–8 years | 3 mg |
Children | 9–13 years | 4 mg |
Adult men and women | 14+ years | 5 mg |
Pregnant women | (vs. 5) | 6 mg |
Breastfeeding women | (vs. 5) | 7 mg |
While for many nutrients, the US Department of Agriculture uses food composition data combined with food consumption survey results to estimate average consumption, the surveys and reports do not include pantothenic acid in the analyses.[19] Less formal estimates of adult daily intakes report about 4 to 7 mg/day.[10]
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the US. For women and men over age 11 the Adequate Intake (AI) is set at 5 mg/day. AI for pregnancy is 5 mg/day, for lactation 7 mg/day. For children ages 1–10 years the AI is 4 mg/day. These AIs are similar to the US AIs.[20]
Safety
As for safety, the IOM sets
Labeling requirements
For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For pantothenic acid labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 10 mg, but as of 27 May 2016 it was revised to 5 mg to bring it into agreement with the AI.[22][23] Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by 1 January 2020 for manufacturers with
Sources
Dietary
Food sources of pantothenic acid include animal-sourced foods, including dairy foods and eggs.[6][8] Potatoes, tomato products, oat-cereals, sunflower seeds, avocado are good plant sources. Mushrooms are good sources, too. Whole grains are another source of the vitamin, but milling to make white rice or white flour removes much of the pantothenic acid, as it is found in the outer layers of whole grains.[6][10] In animal feeds, the most important sources are alfalfa, cereal, fish meal, peanut meal, molasses, rice bran, wheat bran, and yeasts.[26]
Supplements
As a dietary supplement, pantothenic acid is not the same as
Fortification
According to the Global Fortification Data Exchange, pantothenic acid deficiency is so rare that no countries require that foods be fortified.[28]
Absorption, metabolism and excretion
When found in foods, most pantothenic acid is in the form of CoA or bound to acyl carrier protein (ACP). For the intestinal cells to absorb this vitamin, it must be converted into free pantothenic acid. Within the lumen of the intestine, CoA and ACP are hydrolyzed into 4'-phosphopantetheine. The 4'-phosphopantetheine is then dephosphorylated into pantetheine. Pantetheinase, an intestinal enzyme, then hydrolyzes pantetheine into free pantothenic acid.[29] Free pantothenic acid is absorbed into intestinal cells via a saturable, sodium-dependent active transport system.[14] At high levels of intake, when this mechanism is saturated, some pantothenic acid may also be additionally absorbed via passive diffusion.[26] As a whole, when intake increases 10-fold, absorption rate decreases to 10%.[14]
Pantothenic acid is excreted in urine. This occurs after its release from CoA. Urinary amounts are on the order of 2.6 mg/day, but decreased to negligible amounts when subjects in multi-week experimental situations were fed diets devoid of the vitamin.[10]
Deficiency
Pantothenic acid deficiency in humans is very rare and has not been thoroughly studied. In the few cases where deficiency has been seen (prisoners of war during World War II, victims of starvation, or limited volunteer trials), nearly all symptoms were reversed with orally administered pantothenic acid.
In animals, symptoms include disorders of the nervous, gastrointestinal, and immune systems, reduced growth rate, decreased food intake, skin lesions and changes in hair coat, and alterations in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.[31] In rodents, there can be loss of hair color, which led to marketing of pantothenic acid as a dietary supplement which could prevent or treat graying of hair in humans (despite the lack of any human trial evidence).[9]
Pantothenic acid status can be assessed by measuring either whole blood concentration or 24-hour urinary excretion. In humans, whole blood values less than 1 μmol/L are considered low, as is urinary excretion of less than 4.56 mmol/day.[9]
Animal nutrition
Calcium pantothenate and dexpanthenol (D-panthenol) are European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved additives to animal feed.[1] Supplementation is on the order of 8–20 mg/kg for pigs, 10–15 mg/kg for poultry, 30–50 mg/kg for fish and 8–14 mg/kg feed for pets. These are recommended concentrations, designed to be higher than what are thought to be requirements.[1] There is some evidence that feed supplementation increases pantothenic acid concentration in tissues, i.e., meat, consumed by humans, and also for eggs, but this raises no concerns for consumer safety.[1]
No dietary requirement for pantothenic acid has been established in ruminant species. Synthesis of pantothenic acid by ruminal microorganisms appears to be 20 to 30 times more than dietary amounts.[32] Net microbial synthesis of pantothenic acid in the rumen of steer calves has been estimated to be 2.2 mg/kg of digestible organic matter consumed per day. Supplementation of pantothenic acid at 5 to 10 times theoretical requirements did not improve growth performance of feedlot cattle.[33]
Synthesis
Biosynthesis
Bacteria synthesize pantothenic acid from the amino acids aspartate and a precursor to the amino acid valine. Aspartate is converted to
Industrial synthesis
The industrial synthesis of pantothenic acid starts with the
Synthesis of the vitamin is completed by resolution of the lactone using quinine, for example, followed by treatment with the calcium or sodium salt of β-alanine.[35]
History
The term vitamin is derived from the word vitamine, which was coined in 1912 by Polish biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of water-soluble micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines.[36] When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name, hence "vitamin".[26] Vitamin nomenclature was alphabetical, with Elmer McCollum calling these fat-soluble A and water-soluble B.[26] Over time, eight chemically distinct, water-soluble B vitamins were isolated and numbered, with pantothenic acid as vitamin B5.[26]
The essential nature of pantothenic acid was discovered by
References
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0.
- ^ a b c "Calcium D-pantothenate". CHEMICALLAND21, AroKor Holdings Inc. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
- ^ "MSDS of D-pantothenic acid" (PDF). Human Metabolome Database. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-203-90962-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Pantothenic acid: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals". Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. 3 June 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Pantothenic acid". Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. Micronutrient Information Center. 1 July 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ a b "Pantothenic acid ordered by nutrient content per 100 g". US Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, Food Data Central. February 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-323-66162-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-309-06554-2. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
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- ^ PMID 26443589.
- ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Chapter 2: How Cells Obtain Energy from Food". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-305-62785-7.
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- ^ a b "Nutrient Recommendations: Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)". National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
- ^ "TABLE 1: Nutrient Intakes from Food and Beverages" (PDF). What We Eat In America, NHANES 2012–2014 (2016). Retrieved 18 August 2018.
- ^ "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (PDF). 2017.
- ^ "Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals" (PDF). European Food Safety Authority. 2006.
- ^ "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" (PDF).
- ^ "Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)". Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD). Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
- ^ "Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 27 May 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "Industry Resources on the Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 21 December 2018. Retrieved 16 May 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-080-56130-1.
- ^ "Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5)". WebMD. 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
- ^ "Map: Count of Nutrients In Fortification Standards". Global Fortification Data Exchange. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-7817-4133-0.
- ^ ISBN 0-309-10091-7.
- .
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- ^ National Research Council (2001). Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle (7th ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. pp. 162–177.
- S2CID 97862109.
- PMID 23208776.
- ^ Funk C (1912). "The etiology of the deficiency diseases. Beri-beri, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic dropsy, scurvy, experimental scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pellagra". Journal of State Medicine. 20: 341–68.
- .
- ISSN 0021-9258. Archived from the originalon 12 April 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2020.