Rashtrakuta Empire
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
753 CE–982 CE | |||||||||
Kannada Sanskrit | |||||||||
Religion | Hinduism Jainism Buddhism[2] | ||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
Maharaja | |||||||||
• 735–756 | Dantidurga | ||||||||
• 973–982 | Indra IV | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
• Earliest Rashtrakuta records | 753 CE | ||||||||
• Established | 753 CE | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 982 CE | ||||||||
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Today part of | India |
Rashtrakuta dynasty |
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Rashtrakuta (
The Elichpur clan was a
This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw a
During their rule,
History
The origin of the Rashtrakuta empire has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor
The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval
Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the
The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of
Dantidurga's successor
Expansion
The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son,
The successor of Govinda III,
During the rule of
Decline
In 972 A.D.,
In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of
Administration
Part of a series on the |
History of Karnataka |
---|
Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.
The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a
The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.[100]
The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an Akkashale) such as Suvarna, Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65
Economy
The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat,
The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of
The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.
Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.[109] Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.[110]
The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.[111] An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.[112] Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[113]
The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.[114] The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region.[115] The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.[116] In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.[117] A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.[115]
Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.[108] Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.[118] The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.[119] Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.[120]
Culture
Religion
The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.
However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized
In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions,
Society
Chronicles mention more
The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy[137] or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.[138] Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).[139] Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.[140]
By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.[141] Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions[142] Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,[143] but was relatively frequent among other castes.[144] Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.[145]
Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.[146] Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.[147] The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.[148] Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow would immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.[149] The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.[150] The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.[151]
In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a dhoti for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear turbans, a practice that spread to the masses much later.[152] Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.[153] Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The Atakur inscription (hero stone, virgal) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.[154] There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study,[154] and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.[155]
Literature
The Jain writer
Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was
Prose works in
Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were Nalachampu (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, Damayanti Katha, Madalasachampu and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess
Architecture
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.[169] The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day
The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at
The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at
In
Language
With the ending of the
Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.
-
Interior and arcades
-
.
-
Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora.
See also
- Gadag
- Kalyani Chalukyas
- Kuknur
- Pattadakal
- Prithvi-vallabha
Notes
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ a b The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294
- ^ Reu (1933), p39
- Reu(1933), pp1–5
- ^ Altekar (1934), pp1–32
- ^ Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53
- ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p72–74
- ^ Reu (1933), p1
- ^ Kamath (2001), p72
- ^ Reu (1933), pp1–15
- ^ ISBN 978-93-91165-0-55.
It is most likely that they were Kannada-speaking military aristocrats settled at a strategic point in modern-day Maharasthra by the Chalukyas or some other powerful group, perhaps to keep an eye on trade routes and various tribal peoples.
- ^ A Kannada dynasty was created in Berar under the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)
- ^ Kamath 2001, p72–3
- ^ Singh (2008), p556
- ^ A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4
- ^ C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171
- ^ D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7
- ^ Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4
- ^ J. F. Fleet in Reu (1933), p6
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p73
- ^ a b Pollock 2006, p332
- ^ a b Houben(1996), p215
- ^ a b Altekar (1934), p411–3
- ^ Dalby (1998), p300
- ^ Sen (1999), pp380-381
- ^ a b c During the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)
- ^ Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68
- ^ Altekar (1934), pp21–24
- ^ Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)
- ^ Masica (1991), p45-46
- ^ Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87)
- ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
- ^ Reu (1933), p54
- ^ From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya army Karnatabala (power of Karnata) (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)
- ^ Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72
- ^ Sastri (1955), p141
- ^ Thapar (2003), p333
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p143
- ^ Sen (1999), p368
- ^ Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75
- ^ Reu (1933), p62
- ^ a b Sen (1999), p370
- ^ The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333
- ^ From the Karda inscription, a digvijaya (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
- ^ Modern Morkhandi (Mayurkhandi in Bidar district (Kamath 2001, p76)
- ^ modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)
- ^ Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48)
- ^ Kamath 2001, MCC, p76
- ^ From the Sanjan inscriptions, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ a b Keay (2000), p199
- ^ From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)
- ^ Reu (1933), p65
- ^ Sastri (1955), p144
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95, Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124). Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks
- ^ "The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
- ^ Sen (1999), p371
- ^ Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)
- ^ A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
- ^ Reu 1933, p71
- ^ from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)
- ^ Sastri (1955), p145
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p1
- ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p90
- ^ a b Reu (1933), p38
- ^ Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p161
- ^ From the writings of Adikavi Pampa (Kamath 2001, p81)
- ^ Sen (1999), pp373-374
- ^ Kamath (2001), p82
- ^ The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta gained control over Kannauj for a brief period during the early 10th century (Thapar 2003, p333)
- ^ From the Siddalingamadam record of 944 – Krishna III captured Kanchi and Tanjore as well and had full control over northern Tamil regions (Aiyer in Kamath 2001, pp82–83)
- ^ From the Tirukkalukkunram inscription – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III. From the Deoli inscription – Krishna III had feudatories from Himalayas to Ceylon. From the Laksmeshwar inscription – Krishna III was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)
- ^ Conqueror of Kanchi, (Thapar 2003, p334)
- ^ Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore (Sastri 1955, p162)
- ^ Sen 1999), pp374-375
- ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
- ^ "Amoghavarsha IV". 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 April 2007.
- ^ The province of Tardavadi in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire was given to Tailapa II as a fief (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta Krishna III for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)
- ^ Kamath (2001), p101
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp100–103
- ^ Reu (1933), p39–41
- ^ a b Keay (2000), p200
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p94
- ^ Burjor Avari (2007), India: The Ancient Past:
A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200, pp.207–208, Routledge, New York, ISBN 978-0-415-35615-2
- ^ Reu (1933), p93
- ^ Reu (1933), p100
- ^ Reu (1933), p113
- ^ Reu (1933), p110
- ^ Jain (2001), pp67–75
- ^ Reu (1933), p112
- ^ De Bruyne (1968)
- ^ Majumdar (1966), pp50–51
- OCLC 250247191.
- ^ whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or Shasanas as would an archivist. (Altekar in Kamath (2001), p85
- ^ Kamath (2001), p86
- ^ From the notes of Al Masudi (Kamath 2001, p88)
- ^ Kamath (2001), p88
- ^ Altekar (1934), p356
- ^ a b Altekar (1934), p354
- ^ Altekar (1934), p355
- ^ From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p358
- ^ Altekar (1934), p358–359
- ^ a b Altekar (1934), p230
- ^ Altekar (1934), p368
- ^ Altekar (1934), p370–371
- ^ Altekar (1934), p223
- ^ Altekar (1934), p213
- ^ From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p234
- ^ From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216)
- ^ a b Altekar (1934), p222
- ^ From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p223
- ^ From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227
- ^ Altekar (1934), p242
- ^ From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p244)
- ^ From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232
- ^ "Wide and sympathetic tolerance" in general characterised the Rashtrakuta rule (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p92)
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p92
- ^ Altekar in Kamath (2001), p92
- ^ Reu (1933), p36
- ^ The Vaishnava Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism (Kamath 2001, p92)
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p91
- ^ Reu (1933), p34
- ^ Reu (1933, p34
- ^ A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar 2003, pp 349–350, 397)
- ^ From the notes of 10th-century Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Sastri 1955, p396)
- ^ From the notes of Masudi (916) (Sastri 1955, p396)
- ^ From the notes of Magasthenesis and Strabo from Greece and Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi from Arabia (Altekar 1934, p317)
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p317)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p318
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p324)
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, pp330–331)
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni, Altekar (1934) p325
- ^ From the notes of Abuzaid (Altekar 1934, p325)
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p326)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p329
- ^ From the notes of Yuan Chwang, Altekar (1934), p331
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p332, p334)
- ^ From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p337)
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p337)
- ^ From the notes of Al Masudi and Al Idrisi (Altekar 1934, p339)
- ^ From the Tarkhede inscription of Govinda III, (Altekar 1934, p339)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p341
- ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p342)
- ^ From the notes of Sulaiman and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p343)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p345
- ^ From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p346)
- ^ Altekar (1934), p349
- ^ Altekar (1934), p350
- ^ a b Altekar (1934), p351
- ^ From the notes of Ibn Kurdadba (Altekar 1934, p353)
- ^ Warder A.K. (1988), p. 248
- ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p89
- ISBN 978-0-12-397913-1
- ^ The Bedande and Chattana type of composition (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)
- ^ It is said Kavirajamarga may have been co-authored by Amoghavarsha I and court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri 1955, pp355–356)
- ^ Other early writers mentioned in Kavirajamarga are Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu for Kannada prose and Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra and Lokapala in Kannada poetry (Narasimhacharya 1988, p2)
- ^ Warder A.K. (1988), p240
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p356
- ^ L.S. Seshagiri Rao in Amaresh Datta (1988), p1180
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988, p18
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p314
- ISBN 81-7154-255-7
- ^ Narasimhachar (1988), p11
- ^ Hardy (1995), p111
- ISBN 81-7039-218-7.
- ^ Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, India. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
- ^ Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
- ^ Hardy (1995), p327
- ^ Vincent Smith in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ Percy Brown and James Fergusson in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ Kamath (2001), p93
- ^ Arthikaje in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ Grousset in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ Vijapur, Raju S. "Reclaiming past glory". Deccan Herald. Spectrum. Archived from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2007.
- ^ Hardy (1995), p.341
- ^ Hardy (1995), p344-345
- ^ Sundara and Rajashekar, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
- ^ Hardy (1995), p5 (introduction)
- ^ Thapar (2002), pp393–4
- ^ Thapar (2002), p396
- ^ Vaidya (1924), p170
- ^ Sastri (1955), p355
- ^ Rice, E.P. (1921), p12
- ^ Rice, B.L. (1897), p497
- ^ Altekar (1934), p404
- ^ Altekar (1934), p408
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- ISBN 81-208-0450-3.
Web
- Arthikaje. "The Rashtrakutas". History of karnataka. OurKarnataka.Com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
- Kamat, Jyotsna. "The Rashtrakutas". Dynasties of the Deccan. Retrieved 3 February 2007.
- Sastri & Rao, Shama & Lakshminarayan. "South Indian Inscriptions-Miscellaneous Inscriptions in Kannada". Rashtrakutas. Retrieved 3 February 2007.
External links