Sillaginidae

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Sillaginidae
Temporal range:
Ma
Sillago japonica
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Spariformes
Family: Sillaginidae
Richardson, 1846
Type genus
Sillago
Cuvier, 1817
Genera

Sillaginodes

Sillaginopodys

Sillaginops

Sillaginopsis

Sillago

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a

Merlangius merlangus
.

The smelt-whitings are mostly

molluscs, and to a lesser extent echinoderms
and fish, feeding by detecting vibrations emitted by their prey.

The family is highly important to

cast nets. In Australia and Japan in particular, members of the family are often highly sought by recreational fishermen
who also seek the fish for their prized flesh.

Taxonomy

Roland McKay's 1992 Synopsis of the Sillaginidae

The first species of sillaginid to be

British Association for the Advancement of Science.[3] There were, however, many differing opinions on the relationships of the "sillaginoids", leading to the naturalists of the day continually revising the position of the five genera, placing in them in a number of families. The first review of the sillaginid fishes was Gill's 1861 work "Synopsis of the sillaginoids", in which the name "Sillaginidae" was popularized and expanded on to include Sillaginodes and Sillaginopsis,[4] however the debate on the placement of the family remained controversial.[5]

In the years after Gill's paper was published, over 30 'new' species of sillaginids were reported and scientifically described, many of which were

FAO, in which he elevated these subspecies to full species status.[6]

The name "Sillaginidae" was derived from Cuvier's Sillago, which itself takes its name from a locality in Australia,[7] possibly Sillago reef off the coast of Queensland.[8] The term "sillago" is derived from the Greek term syllego, which means "to meet".[9]

Classification

The following is a comprehensive list of the 35 known

Fishbase, which itself is based on McKay's last revision of the family.[9]

Sillaginopodys chondropus
Sillaginops macrolepis
Sillaginopsis panijus
Sillago ingenuua

Evolution

A number of sillaginids have been identified from the

sedimentary deposits along with other species of extant genera.[13]

At least eight fossil sillaginid species have been found, all of which are believed to be of the genus Sillago based on the only remains found, otoliths. Only one species of extant sillaginid, Sillago maculata, has been found in the fossil record, and this was in very recent Pleistocene sediments.[14]

  • Sillago campbellensis (Schwarzhans, 1985) Australia, Miocene[15]
  • Sillago hassovicus (Koken, 1891) Poland, Middle Miocene[13]
  • Sillago maculata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) New Zealand, Middle Pleistocene[14]
  • Sillago mckayi (Schwarzhans, 1985) Australia, Oligocene[15]
  • Sillago pliocaenica (Stinton, 1952) Australia, Pliocene[16]
  • Sillago recta (Schwarzhans, 1980) New Zealand, Upper Miocene[12]
  • Sillago schwarzhansi (Steurbaut, 1984) France, Lower Miocene[17]
  • Sillago ventriosus (Steurbaut, 1984) France, Upper Oligocene[17]

Timeline of genera

QuaternaryNeogenePaleogeneHolocenePleist.Plio.MioceneOligoceneEocenePaleoceneSillaginoidesSillagoQuaternaryNeogenePaleogeneHolocenePleist.Plio.MioceneOligoceneEocenePaleocene

Phylogeny

Sillaginidae 
 Sillago 

Sillago

Parasillago

Sillaginopodys

Sillaginodes

Sillaginopsis

Phylogeny of the Sillaginidae, illustrating the three subgenera of Sillago proposed by McKay.[5]

The relationships of the Sillaginidae are poorly known, with very similar

plesiomorphic characteristics; being monotypic, and distinct from Sillago. Sillago is further divided into three subgenera based primarily on swim bladder morphology; Sillago, Parasillago and Sillaginopodys, which also represent evolutionary relationships.[6] Whilst genetic studies have not been done on the family, they have been used to establish the relationship of what were thought to be various subspecies of school whiting, S. bassensis and S. flindersi.[20] Furthermore, morphological data suggests a number of Australian species diverged very recently during the last glacial maximum, which caused land bridges to isolate populations of fish. The two aforementioned species of school whiting, S. maculata and S. burrus, and S. ciliata and S. analis are all thought to be products of such a process, although only the school whiting have anything other than similar morphology as evidence of this process.[5]

Morphology

The Sillaginidae are medium-sized fishes which grow to an average of around 20 cm and around 100 g,

colourings and frequently the only colour characteristics to identify between species are the arrangements of spots and bars on their upper bodies. Most of the family are a pale brown – creamy white colour, while a few species are silver all over. The undersides of the fish are usually lighter than the upper side, and the fins range from yellow to transparent, often marked by bars and spots.[5]

Distribution and habitat

Mediterranean, passing through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea since 1977 as part of the Lessepsian migration, becoming widespread.[23]

Sillaginids are primarily inshore marine fishes inhabiting stretches of coastal waters, although a few species move offshore in their adult stages to deep sand banks or reefs to a maximum known depth of 180 m.

Sillaginopsis panijus also found in the upper reaches of the estuary.[25] Each species often occupies a specific niche to avoid competition with co-occurring sillaginids, often inhabiting a specific substrate type, depth, or making use of surf zones and estuaries.[26] The juveniles often show distinct changes in habitat preference as they mature, often moving to deeper waters.[24]
No members of the family are known to undergo migratory movements, and have been shown to be relatively weak swimmers, relying on currents to disperse juveniles.

Biology

Diet and feeding

The smelt-whitings are benthic

planktonic prey, with small copepods, isopods and other small crustaceans often taken.[31] Whilst many species have a change in niche to reduce intraspecific competition, there are often many species of sillaginid inhabiting a geographical area. Where this occurs, there is often definite diet differences between species, often associated with a niche specialization.[30] The sillaginid's distinctive body shape and mouth placement is an adaptation to bottom feeding, which is the predominant method of feeding for all whiting species. All larger whiting feed by using their protrusile jaws and tube-like mouths to suck up various types of prey from in, on or above the ocean substrate,[26] as well as using their nose as a 'plough' to dig through the substrate.[6]
There is a large body of evidence that shows whiting do not rely on
visual cues when feeding, instead using a system based on the vibrations emitted by their prey.[32]

Predators

Smelt-whitings are a major link in the

Nematoda.[37][38]

Reproduction

The Sillaginidae are an

tidal creeks and lagoons as well as exposed surf zones, usually over tidal flats and seagrass beds. As the fish mature, they generally move to deeper waters, showing a change in diet.[30]

Relationship to humans

Sillaginidae tempura

The sillaginids are some of the most important

flesh are the reason for this, and their inshore nature also has made them popular targets for recreational fishermen in a number of countries.[6] With overfishing rife in some areas, sustainable aquaculture has allowed the commercial farming of a number of sillaginid species, as well as the use of farmed fish to restock depleted estuaries. At least one species, the Gangetic whiting, has occasionally been used in brackish water aquaria.[44]

Commercial fisheries

A species of sillaginid for sale as "asuhos" in the Philippines

A small number of sillaginids have large enough populations to allow an entire fishery to be based around them, with King George whiting,

FAO, however, it is evident that the family is one of the most important in the Indo-Pacific region, having an estimated catch of 22 718 tonnes in 1990 alone.[6] In this same report, it was shown that the greatest three utilizers of sillaginids were the Philippines, Western Australia and Thailand respectively. The records also suggested that the catch increased from 1983 when it was 17 570 t, up to the last estimate in 1990 of 22 718 t. No such estimates have been carried out since. Modern records for Australia show that this trend has reversed, with all catches from Australia totaling 4 372 t in 2006 compared with 1990's 6000 t haul.[46]
Statistics from other countries are unavailable for such comparison.

Sillaginids are taken by a variety of fishing methods, with inshore catches predominantly taken using beach seine nets and cast nets. Due to the alert nature of sillaginids, skill is required on creeping up quietly enough to be able to net fish with a cast net, with experienced fishers often paddling into the sun toward a school and drifting slowly upon it before casting the net.

commercial trawlers and longliners take the most fish, with a number of sillaginids taken in prawn trawls as bycatch. The fish are normally marketed fresh locally under various names, with "Ashuos" commonly used in many countries for various sillaginids.[9] At least one export fishery exists in Australia whereby S. flindersi is exported to Thailand where the fish are repackaged and sent to Japan frozen.[47]

Recreational fisheries

Main article: Smelt-whiting fishing

In Australia and Japan, members of the family are highly sought after by anglers for their sporting and eating qualities, with anglers often taking more than commercial fishermen in some areas.

sinker tied directly to the mainline usually effective. In deeper water fished from boats or where currents are strong, more complex rigs are used, often with hooks tied to dropper loops on the trace.[49] in Australia, some specialist whiting fishermen who target the fish in the surf or on shallow banks use red beads or tubing to attract the fish, claiming the method produces more fish.[50] The bait used is normally anything from the surrounding environment which the whiting naturally prey on, with polychaetes, bivalves, crustaceans such as prawns and crabs, cephalopods and small fish effective for most species. As with most species, live bait is known to produce better catches. Lure fishing for whiting is not normally practiced, but saltwater flies have been used to good effect, as have small soft plastic lures and surface lures like poppers and stick baits imitating a fleeing fish or prawn. this type of fishing has experienced increasing popularity the last couple of years.[50] In some areas, restrictions to the amount and size of fish are in place and enforced by fishery authorities.[51]

Aquaculture

A number of sillaginid species have been the subject of brackish water aquaculture in Asia and India,

growth hormones is being investigated.[53]
In Australia, aquaculturally bred sand whiting have also been used to stock depleted estuaries.

References

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External links

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