Sustainable fishery

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities
involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as

fishing down marine food webs).[2]

Overview

Sustainability can mean different things to different people. Some may view sustainable fishing to be catching very little in order for fish populations to return to their historical levels (represented by the blue dot), while others consider sustainability to be the maximum amount of fish we can catch without depleting stocks any further (red dot). Most research, industry and policy backs the second view: viewing fish as a resource.[3]

Global

negative impacts on wild salmon.[5][6] Fish that occupy the higher trophic levels
are less efficient sources of food energy.

A report at the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2021 stated that: "Sustainable fisheries accounted for approximately 0.1 per cent of global GDP in 2017".[7]: 22 

Defining sustainability

Further information: Sustainability

Three ways of defining a sustainable fishery exist:

Social sustainability

Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.[9]

Social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use. Major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues.[2] Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, depleting or driving to extinction many species.[10]

To a great extent, sustainability is like good art, it is hard to describe but we know it when we see it.

Ray Hilborn, [2]

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests."[2] For example, in recent years, barndoor skates have been caught as bycatch in the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue.[11] Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, changing the ecosystem, there could still be sustainable fishing of other commercial species.[2]

Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance that the long-term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental conservation.

Daniel Pauly and Dave Preikshot, [12]

Environmental sustainability

The focus of sustainable fishing is often on the fish. Other factors are sometimes included in the broader question of sustainability. The use of

polyamides like nylon. Synthetic braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or high performance fibers such as ultra high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid
.

Energy and resources are employed in fish processing, refrigeration, packaging, logistics, etc. The methodologies of life-cycle assessment are useful to evaluate the sustainability of components and systems.[13][14] These are part of the broad question of sustainability.

Obstacles

   Highlighted in light green are the continental shelves, home to the most productive fishing areas in the world. Large areas have been destroyed by heavy bottom trawls.

Overfishing

Main article: Overfishing

Overfishing can be sustainable.[dubious – discuss] According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability".[2]

Pacific salmon are usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon, called the "escapement", are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The optimum escapement is that needed to reach that surplus. If the escapement is half the optimum, then normal fishing looks like overfishing. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.[2]

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse.[15] Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure".[2]

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.[16]

A Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) has been applied to the whaling industry, as well as charting the price of caviar, which depends on sturgeon stocks.[17] Another example is North Sea cod. Comparing fisheries and mineral extraction tells us that human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a Hubbert depletion cycle.[18][19]

Fishing down the food web
Coastal fishing communities in Bangladesh are vulnerable to flooding from sea-level rises.[20]
Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[21]
Shrinking of the Aral Sea

Habitat modification

See also:
Environmental effects of fishing and Destructive fishing practices

Nearly all the world's

benthic habitat, radically changing the associated communities.[22]

Changing the ecosystem balance

Main article: Fishing down the food web

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.

Climate change

Main articles: Climate change and fisheries and Effects of climate change on oceans

Rising ocean temperatures

fishing communities
at risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture. As climate change causes oceans to warm up, fish are forced to move away, into cooler Northern waters. This can cause overcrowding in these areas.

Ocean pollution

Main article: Marine pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been affected by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses.[26] Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

The

over-exploitation of resources on the oceans. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.[27][28][29]

Diseases and toxins

See also:
Harmful algal blooms, and Mercury in fish

Large predator fish can contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affect

fetal development
, memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

Irrigation

Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from its

largest lakes
in the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Remediation

Fisheries management

Main article: Fisheries management

monitoring control and surveillance system.[30][31][32]

  • Ideas and rules: Economist
    sustainable growth is possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.[33][34]
  • Fishing subsidies: Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries. Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters, such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.[35][36]
  • Valorization of by-catch: helping to avoid discards (and their associated adverse ecological impacts) by valorizing by-catch products, as they are good sources for protein hydrolizates, peptones, enzymatic mixtures or fish oil being these products of interest different industrial sectors.[38]
  • Payment for Ecosystem Services: Environmental economist Essam Y Mohammed argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.[39]
  • Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
  • Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

Ecosystem based fisheries

We propose that rebuilding ecosystems, and not sustainability per se, should be the goal of fishery management. Sustainability is a deceptive goal because human harvesting of fish leads to a progressive simplification of ecosystems in favour of smaller, high turnover, lower trophic level fish species that are adapted to withstand disturbance and habitat degradation.

Tony Pitcher and Daniel Pauly, [40]

According to

ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions.[42] In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists:[43]

  • Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-averse and adaptive.
  • Maintain an "old growth" structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to overfishing.
  • Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea.
  • Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter.
  • Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks.
  • Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage species.
  • Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of decades or centuries, including global climate change.
  • Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large, older fish.
  • Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all ecological equations.

Marine protected areas

Main article:
Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Each nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the area from fishing and other threats.[44]

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems are in relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near the

oil drilling than with fishing, the U.S. extended its jurisdiction, then 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge shelf areas part of its territory. Other nations followed, extending national control to what became known as the exclusive economic zone
(EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

Daniel Pauly characterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream."[12] The Pew Charitable Trusts have funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.[45][46][47][48]

Sustainable Fish Farming

See also:
Salmon farming issues

Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as "aquaculture", fish farming, when done right, can be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like—to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers.[49] Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh "cages" submerged underwater.

Because they are not catching the fish out in the open ocean, fish farmers are able to control the environment in which the fish exist. Sustainable fish farming practices do not use dangerous chemicals, hormones, or antibiotics on their fish, which benefits the surrounding marine environment, and the human consumers themselves. In addition to this, sustainable fish farming is able to control what their fish eat: farmers will take care to keep the fish's diet healthy and balanced. Conversely, one of the most unsustainable practices within the fish farming industry occurs is when farmers feed the fish pellets of animal waste. The quality of ocean water in and around fish farms is up to the farmers to maintain, and due to the fact that the mesh cages take up only a certain amount of space in the ocean, fish farmers can ensure that waste and other byproducts are not polluting the water. Everything from fish oils to fish skin may be incorporated into something new: for example, fish oils can become a beneficiary supplement for both animals and humans.[50]

Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
.

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

Management goals might consider the impact of salmon on bear and river ecosystems.

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004, Daniel Pauly asked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", then answered his own question, "By accepting each other's essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."[51]

A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore the food chain in their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranch Veta La Palma in southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular by Joel Salatin who created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently in Michael Pollan's book The Omnivore's Dilemma (2006) and the documentary films, Food, Inc. and Fresh. The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work.

Awareness campaigns

See also: Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification

Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine Conservation Biology Institute and

Sea Around Us Project, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, Frozen at Sea Fillets Association and CEDO
.

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, four criteria apply when choosing seafood:[52]

  • Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
  • Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
  • Is there a large amount of bycatch taken with the target species?
  • Does the fishery have a problem with discards—generally, undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organizations have download links for wallet-sized cards, listing good and bad choices:[53]

Global goals

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include, as goal number 7: target 2, the intention to "reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.[59][60]

In 2015, the MDGs then evolved to become the Sustainable Development Goals with Goal 14 aimed at conserving life below water.[61] Its Target 14.7 states that "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".

Data issues

Data quality

One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.[62]

Unreported fishing

Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually,[63] representing between 11 and 26 million tonnes.[64]

Shifting baselines

Shifting baselines is the way significant changes to a system are measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from the original state of the system. The term was first used by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries".[65] Pauly developed the term in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus work with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long-term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is "natural".[66]

History

In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand; and we will understand only what we are taught.

Senegalese conservationist Baba Dioum, [67]

In his 1883 inaugural address to the International Fisheries Exhibition in London,

Thomas Huxley asserted that overfishing or "permanent exhaustion" was scientifically impossible, and stated that probably "all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible".[68] In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing. The United States Fish Commission was established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries in New England were declining. At the time of Huxley's address, the Atlantic halibut fishery had already collapsed (and has never recovered).[69]

Traditional management of fisheries

Traditionally,

species abundance and diversity" and by perceiving the fishing industry as "the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources." Historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements.[12]

See also

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Sources

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