Mercury in fish
The presence of
In human-controlled ecosystems of fish, usually done for market production of wanted seafood species, mercury clearly rises through the food chain via fish consuming small plankton, as well as through non-food sources such as underwater sediment.[3]
Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals, particularly mercury and fat-soluble pollutants from water pollution. Species of fish that are long-lived and high on the food chain, such as marlin, tuna, shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others.[4] Cetaceans (whales and dolphins) also bioaccumulate mercury and other pollutants, so populations that eat whale meat, such as the Japanese, Icelanders, Norwegians and the Faroese, are also vulnerable to mercury ingestion.
Biomagnification
The consumption of fish is by far the most significant source of ingestion-related mercury exposure in humans and animals.
Origins of mercury pollution
Terrestrial mercury pollution
There are three types of mercury emission:
Anthropogenic sources include coal burning,
Re-emission, the largest emitter, occurs in a variety of ways. It is possible for mercury that has been deposited in soil to be re-emitted into the
Much (an estimated 40%) of the mercury that eventually finds its way into fish originates with
Mercury in the
Elemental mercury often comes from
Aquatic mercury pollution
The farming of
The
Mercury can get into freshwater systems by point sources and extended flooding.[8] In Canada, mercury poisoning in Grassy Narrows was likely caused by a spill at a paper mill, which is a point source. Non-point sources include floods that create hospitable habitats for bacteria that can convert mercury to methylmercury, which is the toxic form that bioaccumulates through aquatic food webs. The effects of these different sources of mercury have been studied at the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario, Canada, using research procedures including whole-lake ecosystem experiments and non-lethal fish muscle biopsies.[8]
Controlling output of mercury pollution sources
The U.S. Geological Survey projects that in the next several decades there will be a 50 percent increase in mercury levels.[
Health effects and outcomes
Disparate impacts
Mercury content in fish does not affect all populations equally. Certain ethnic groups, as well as young children, are more likely to suffer the effects of methyl mercury poisoning. In the United States, Wallace gathered data that indicated 16.9% of women who self-identify as
Regulation and health
While various studies have shown high concentrations of mercury accumulated in fish, medical cases often go unreported and pose a difficulty in correlating mercury in fish with human poisoning. Environmental issues cover a broad range of areas, but medical cases that are associated with pollutants released into the environment by factories or construction areas cause public health issues that affect not only the environment but also human well-being. Substances poisonous to the human body in a particular amount or dose may not cause any symptoms over time. While there are limits to how much of anything the body can have, mercury is a particular poison that produces immediate physical symptoms when the body has been accumulating it over a period of time.[clarification needed]
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates the amount of mercury in human blood that is not likely to pose fatal health outcomes. The agency is in charge of enforcing regulations and policies that cover a range of environmental topics.[20] Analysis of blood mercury concentrations in childbearing women has documented that exposure to methyl mercury (MeHg) occurs primarily through the consumption of fish.[21] The U.S. FDA highly recommends against pregnant women and young children consuming raw fish. Pregnant women and young children often lack strong immune systems and are more at risk for foodborne illnesses.[22]
Medical cases and exposure to mercury
In the United States, the
Work and exposure
Most cases that arise are due to work exposure or
Even in countries, such as
Children exposed to mercury are particularly susceptible to
Economically, there does not seem to be a difference in mercury exposure based on
By nation
Certain
The most serious case of mercury poisoning in recent history was in the Japanese city of
A 2014 USGS survey of mercury levels in the United States water system found that methylmercury concentrations in fish were typically highest in wetland areas including the coastal plain streams in the Southeast. Fish methylmercury levels were also high in the Western US, but only in streams that had been mined for mercury or gold.[34]
Minamata disease
In the 1950s, inhabitants of the seaside town of Minamata, on Kyushu island in Japan, noticed strange behavior in animals. Cats would exhibit nervous tremors, dance, and scream. Within a few years, this was observed in other animals; birds would drop out of the sky. Symptoms were also observed in fish, an important component of the diet, especially for the poor. When human symptoms started to be noticed around 1956 an investigation began. Fishing was officially banned in 1957. It was found that the
Seafood consumption benefits
The
Selenium is an element that is known to counteract some of the dangers of ingesting mercury.[30] Multiple studies have been done, such as those in New Jersey and Sweden, that take into account selenium as well as mercury levels. Fish often do contain selenium in conjunction with bioaccumulated mercury, which may offset some of the dangers associated with the mercury ingested.
Levels of contamination
Most-contaminated fish species
The danger level from
Fish that consume their
Species | Median (ppm) | Mean (ppm) | Std dev (ppm) | Trophic level
|
Max age (years)
|
Comment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tilefish (Gulf of Mexico) | — | 1.123 | — | 3.6 | 35 | Mid-Atlantic tilefish has lower mercury levels and is considered safe to eat in moderation.[4] |
Swordfish | 0.870 | 0.995 | 0.539 | 4.5 | 15 | |
Shark | 0.811 | 0.979 | 0.626 | |||
Mackerel (king) | — | 0.730 | — | 4.5 | 14 | |
Tuna (bigeye) | 0.560 | 0.689 | 0.341 | 4.5 | 11 | Fresh/frozen |
Orange roughy | 0.562 | 0.571 | 0.183 | 4.3 | 149 | |
Marlin[c] | 0.390 | 0.485 | 0.237 | 4.5 | ||
Mackerel (Spanish) | — | 0.454 | — | 4.5 | 5 | Gulf of Mexico |
Grouper | 0.399 | 0.448 | 0.278 | 4.2 | All species | |
Tuna | 0.340 | 0.386 | 0.265 | All species, fresh/frozen | ||
Bluefish | 0.305 | 0.368 | 0.221 | 4.5 | 9 | |
Sablefish | 0.265 | 0.361 | 0.241 | 3.8 | 94 | |
Tuna (albacore)
|
0.360 | 0.358 | 0.138 | 4.3 | 9 | Fresh/frozen |
Tuna (yellowfin) | 0.311 | 0.354 | 0.231 | 4.3 | 9 | Fresh/frozen |
Patagonian toothfish | 0.303 | 0.354 | 0.299 | 4.0 | 50+[40] | Chilean sea bass |
Tuna (albacore)
|
0.338 | 0.350 | 0.128 | 4.3 | 9 | Canned |
Croaker white | 0.280 | 0.287 | 0.069 | 3.4 | Pacific | |
Halibut | 0.188 | 0.241 | 0.225 | 4.3 | ||
Weakfish
|
0.157 | 0.235 | 0.216 | 3.8 | 17[41] | Sea trout |
Scorpionfish
|
0.181 | 0.233 | 0.139 | |||
Mackerel (Spanish) | — | 0.182 | — | 4.5 | South Atlantic | |
Mahi-mahi | 0.180 | 0.178 | 0.103 | |||
Bass | 0.094 | 0.167 | 0.194 | 3.9 | black, and black sea
| |
Snapper
|
0.113 | 0.166 | 0.244 | |||
Monkfish
|
0.139 | 0.161 | 0.095 | 4.5 | 25 | |
Perch | 0.146 | 0.150 | 0.112 | 4.0 | Freshwater | |
Tuna (skipjack) | 0.150 | 0.144 | 0.119 | 3.8 | 12 | Fresh/frozen |
Tilefish (Atlantic) | 0.099 | 0.144 | 0.122 | 3.6 | 35 | |
Skate | — | 0.137 | — | |||
Buffalofish
|
0.120 | 0.137 | 0.094 | |||
Tuna | 0.077 | 0.126 | 0.134 | All species, canned, light | ||
Perch (ocean)[c]
|
0.102 | 0.121 | 0.125 | |||
Cod | 0.066 | 0.111 | 0.152 | 3.9 | 22 | |
Carp | 0.134 | 0.110 | 0.099 | |||
Lobster (American) | 0.086 | 0.107 | 0.076 | |||
Pickerel (American) | 0.091 | 0.095 | 0.100 | |||
Lobster (spiny) | 0.062 | 0.093 | 0.097 | |||
Sheephead (California) | 0.080 | 0.090 | 0.050 | |||
Whitefish | 0.067 | 0.089 | 0.084 | |||
Mackerel (chub) | — | 0.088 | — | 3.1 | Pacific | |
Jacksmelt | 0.050 | 0.081 | 0.103 | 3.1 | ||
Hake | 0.067 | 0.079 | 0.064 | 4.0 | ||
Herring | 0.042 | 0.078 | 0.128 | 3.2 | 21 | |
Trout | 0.025 | 0.071 | 0.141 | Freshwater | ||
Croaker (Atlantic) | 0.061 | 0.065 | 0.050 | |||
Crab | 0.050 | 0.065 | 0.096 | snow crab
| ||
Butterfish | — | 0.058 | — | 3.5 | ||
Flatfish[c] | 0.050 | 0.056 | 0.045 | Flounder, plaice and sole | ||
Haddock | 0.049 | 0.055 | 0.033 | Atlantic | ||
Whiting | 0.052 | 0.051 | 0.030 | |||
Mackerel (Atlantic) | — | 0.050 | — | |||
Mullet | 0.014 | 0.050 | 0.078 | |||
Shad (American) | 0.033 | 0.038 | 0.045 | |||
Crayfish | 0.035 | 0.032 | 0.012 | |||
Pollock | 0.003 | 0.031 | 0.089 | |||
Squid | 0.017 | 0.024 | 0.023 | |||
Catfish | 0.005 | 0.024 | 0.056 | 3.9 | 24 | |
Salmon[c] | 0.015 | 0.022 | 0.034 | Fresh/frozen | ||
Anchovies
|
0.011 | 0.016 | 0.015 | 3.1 | ||
Salmon[c] | 0.010 | 0.014 | 0.021 | Canned | ||
Sardine | 0.010 | 0.013 | 0.015 | 2.7 | ||
Tilapia[c] | 0.004 | 0.013 | 0.023 | |||
Oyster | < 0.001 | 0.012 | 0.035 | |||
Clam[c] | 0.002 | 0.009 | 0.011 | |||
Shrimp[c] | 0.001 | 0.009 | 0.013 | 6.5[42] | ||
Scallop | < 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.007 |
- US FDA.[4]
- ^ Trophic levels and maximum ages are, unless otherwise indicated, taken from the relevant species pages on Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly (Eds) (2012).[39] Where a group has more than one species, the average of the principal commercial species is used.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Only methylmercury was analyzed (all other results are for total mercury)
US government scientists tested fish in 291 streams around the country for mercury contamination. They found mercury in every fish tested, according to the study by the
Legislation
Japan
Since the
Category | Regulation | Result |
---|---|---|
Cosmetics | Pharmaceutical Affairs Act |
Ban the use of mercury and its compounds |
Agriculture | Agricultural Chemicals Control Act | Ban the use of mercury and its compounds as an active ingredient |
Household Commodities | Act on Control of Household Products Containing Hazardous Substances | No mercury in household socks
|
Pharmaceutical Products | Pharmaceutical Affairs Act | No use of mercury compounds in oral preparations. No use of mercury compounds, other than mercurochrome , as an active ingredient. Mercury as a preservative only if no other option is available.
|
Air |
Air Pollution Control Law | No more than 40 ng/m3 |
Water | Basic Environment Law and Water Pollution Control Act | Environmental quality standard: no more than 0.0005 mg/L in ground water . Effluent standard: no more than 0.005 mg/L in effluence.
|
Soil | Basic Environment Law and Soil Contamination Countermeasures Act | Environmental quality standard: no more than 0.0005 mg/L sample solution. Elution standard: no more than 0.0005 mg/L. Content standard: no more than 15 mg/kg |
Regulation of these potential sources of pollution reduces the amount of mercury that ends up in
It is Japan's goal to promote international mercury legislation in hopes of preventing any country from experiencing what it did.
United States
Air pollution regulations
The United States has regulated mercury emissions under the authority of the
The
EPA subsequently classified mercury emissions from power plants as hazardous under section 112 of the Clean Air Act. The 2012 Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) regulation, issued by the Barack Obama administration, targets airborne mercury emissions from power plants and other stationary sources.[47][48] Airborne mercury is dissolved in the oceans, where microorganisms convert waterborne mercury into methyl mercury, which enters the food chain and is stored in fish tissue.
EPA stated that the MATS regulation would prevent about 90% of power plant mercury.[48] The agency estimated the total expected health benefits are estimated at $37 billion–$90 billion by 2016.[citation needed] EPA estimated the economic cost at $9.6 billion annually.[citation needed].
In 2020 the
Wastewater regulations
EPA published wastewater regulations (effluent guidelines) for mercury in industrial categories where mercury is used in the manufacturing process, including battery manufacturing;[50] inorganic chemicals manufacturing;[51] oil and gas extraction (drilling fluids and cuttings);[52] and nonferrous metals manufacturing (smelting).[53]
European Union
In EU, the regulation (EU) 2017/852[54] covers the full life cycle of mercury. This legislation prohibits the manufacture, export and import of a large range of mercury-added products; puts an end to all uses of mercury catalysts and large electrodes in industrial processes and reduces the use of and pollution from dental amalgam. Recently, the EU estimated the Mercury content in the topsoils based on a large Land Cover Survery named LUCAS.[55] The mercury content in EU topsoils has a median of 38 μg per Kg with a total content of around 45,000 tons[56] in the 0–20 cm of EU.
International
Some believe that legislation on a global scale is needed for this issue because mercury pollution is estimated to be so far-reaching. Pollution from one country does not stay localized to that country. Despite this,
Current advice
The complexities associated with mercury transport and environmental fate are described by USEPA in their 1997 Mercury Study Report to Congress.[62] Because methyl mercury and high levels of elemental mercury can be particularly toxic to a fetus or young children, organizations such as the U.S. EPA and FDA recommend that women who are pregnant or plan to become pregnant within the next one or two years, as well as young children, avoid eating more than 6 ounces (170g, one average meal) of fish per week.[63]
In the United States, the FDA has an action level for methylmercury in commercial marine and freshwater fish that is 1.0 parts per million (ppm). In Canada, the limit for the total of mercury content is 0.5 ppm. The Got Mercury? website includes a calculator for determining mercury levels in fish.[64]
Species with characteristically low levels of mercury include
According to the
- Do not eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish (Gulf of Mexico) because they might contain high levels of mercury.
- Eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals of 170 g each) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. Five of the most commonly eaten fish and shellfish that are low in mercury are: shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish. Another commonly eaten fish, albacore or ("white") tuna depending on its origin might have more mercury than canned light tuna. So, when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish, it is recommended that you should not eat more than up to 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna per week.
- Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. If no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal of 170 g) per week of fish you catch from local waters, but consume no other fish during that week.
Research suggests that selenium content in fish is protective against the toxic effects of methylmercury content.[69] Fish with higher ratios of selenium to methylmercury (Se:Hg) are better to eat since the selenium binds to the methylmercury allowing it to pass through the body un-absorbed.
In 2012 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported on chemical contaminants they found in the food of over 20 European countries. They established that fish meat and fish products were primarily responsible for methylmercury in the diet of all age classes. Particularly implicated were swordfish, tuna, cod, pike, whiting and hake. The EFSA recommend a tolerable weekly intake for methylmercury of 1.3 μg/kg body weight.[70]
See also
- Diagnosis Mercury: Money, Politics and Poison
- Mercury pollution in the ocean
- Mercury in tuna
- Safe Harbor Certified Seafood
- Whale meat
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- Lubick, N. (2009). "Ocean mercury on the increase". Nature. .
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External links
- Health policy for pregnant women The NRDC created the chart below as a guideline to how much tuna can be eaten by children, pregnant women or women wanting to conceive, based on their weight.
- Recommendations for Fish Consumption in Alaska Bulletin No. 6 June 15, 2001 Mercury and National Fish Advisories Statement from Alaska Division of Public Health
- Methylmercury in Sport Fish: Information for Fish Consumers
- FDA Tests Show Mercury in White Tuna 3 Times Higher than Can Light, Says Mercury Policy Project
- FDA - Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990-2012)
- Federal Study Shows Mercury In Fish Widespread, Inescapable
- Mercury Awareness Program Highlighted on Pacifica Radio | Turtle Island Restoration Network A Mercury Calculator from Got Mercury?
- Fish, Mercury & Nutrition: The Net Effects Documentary produced by Prairie Public Television