Banteng
Banteng | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Family: | Bovidae |
Subfamily: | Bovinae |
Genus: | Bos |
Species: | B. javanicus
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Binomial name | |
Bos javanicus d'Alton, 1823
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Subspecies | |
List
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Distribution of banteng (2010)[2] green: present red: possibly present | |
Synonyms[3][4] | |
list
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The banteng (Bos javanicus; /ˈbæntɛŋ/), also known as tembadau,[5] is a species of wild bovine found in Southeast Asia.
The head-and-body length is between 1.9 and 3.68 m (6.2 and 12.1 ft).[6] Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their domesticated counterparts, but are otherwise similar in appearance. The banteng shows extensive sexual dimorphism; adult bulls are generally dark brown to black, larger and more sturdily built than adult cows, which are thinner and usually pale brown or chestnut red. There is a big white patch on the rump. Horns are present on both sexes, and are typically 60 to 95 cm (24 to 37 in) long. Three subspecies are generally recognised.
Banteng are active during the day as well as at night, though activity at night is more in areas frequented by humans. Herds comprise two to forty individuals, and generally a single bull. Herbivores, banteng feed on vegetation such as grasses,
The largest populations of wild banteng occur in Cambodia, Java and possibly in Borneo (particularly Sabah) and Thailand. Domesticated banteng occur in Bali and many eastern Indonesian islands (such as Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Sumba), Australia, Malaysia and New Guinea. Feral populations are found in East Kalimantan and the Northern Territory (Australia). Domesticated populations are primarily used for their highly demanded meat, and are used as draught animals to a lesser extent. The wild banteng is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. Rampant poaching (for food, game, traditional medicine and horns), habitat loss and fragmentation and susceptibility to disease are major threats throughout the range. Banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to protected areas (possibly barring Cambodia). The banteng is the second endangered species to be successfully cloned, and the first clone to survive beyond infancy.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The banteng was first
Bos leucoprymnus was suggested as a synonym in 1830, but was pointed out to be a cross between a wild banteng and a domesticated individual; Hooijer wrote that he could not infer that this was the case from the original description, and, even if it were a cross, the name would not become invalid. Other names proposed for the banteng include Bos banteng and Bos bantinger. In a 1845 revision of d'Alton's description, the authors opined that both the specimens were wild oxen, referring to them as Bos sondaicus instead. They mistook the female for a young male, an error that continued in several publications by later authors.[4]
Fossils of banteng known from the
Subspecies
Four
- Javan banteng (B. j. javanicus) d'Alton, 1823: Occurs in Java and possibly Bali.
- Indochinese (or Burma) banteng (B. j. birmanicus) Lydekker, 1898: Occurs on the Southeast Asian mainland.
- Bali cattle (B. j. domesticus) Wilckens, 1905: Occurs in Bali, Australia, the Philippines[13] and New Guinea
- Bornean banteng (B. j. lowi) Lydekker, 1912: Occurs only in Borneo.
A 2015
Relationships of members of the genus Bos based on nuclear genomes after Sinding, et al. 2021.[16]
Bos |
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Characteristics
The banteng is similar to taurine cattle, with head-and-body length between 1.9 and 2.25 m (6.2 and 7.4 ft). Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their domesticated counterparts, but are otherwise similar in appearance. The mean shoulder height of wild Javan and Indochinese banteng is 1.4 m (4.6 ft) for cows and 1.6 m (5.2 ft) for bulls; Bornean banteng, the smallest subspecies, are shorter. Domesticated banteng cows reach 1.2 m (3.9 ft) at the shoulder, while the bulls are 1.3–1.5 m (4.3–4.9 ft) tall.[12][17] In the wild cows weigh around 590–670 kg (1,300–1,480 lb), while bulls weigh around 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb). Weights of domesticated individuals range from 211 to 242 kg (465 to 534 lb) for females and from 335 to 363 kg (739 to 800 lb) for males.[18] The largest bulls attain 3.3 and 3.7 m (11 and 12 ft) between pegs (nose to rump) with 0.9 and 0.95 m (3.0 and 3.1 ft) long tail, 1.76 and 1.91 m (5.8 and 6.3 ft) at the withers, and weigh 900 kg (2,000 lb) or more.[6][19]
The banteng shows extensive
Ecology and behaviour
Banteng are active during the day as well as at night, though activity at night is more in areas frequented by humans. They typically form herds of two to forty individuals consisting of a single bull. Older males form groups of two or three. Banteng are timid and reclusive, and tend to be highly alert, making approach difficult. Domestic individuals get stressed easily, and need to be handled with care. They rest and seek shelter for safety in dense forests.[12][17][5] Banteng, particularly cows and calves, walk fast and manoeuvre easily through dense cover.[20] Predators of adult banteng include the local populations of tigers and dholes (Asian wild dogs).[12][21][22] Banteng use their strong sense of smell to detect predators and as a means of communication within a herd. Their hearing is also highly developed. Vocalisations such as roars and bellows might be common during the breeding season; calves within seven months may produce soft eng sounds. High-pitched cries are used to raise alarm.[20]
Diet and foraging
Herbivores, banteng feed on vegetation such as grasses,
Reproduction and life cycle
Not much is known about the reproductive physiology of banteng, but it might be similar to that observed in taurine cattle. Domestic banteng can become
Diseases and parasites
Banteng host several
Habitat and distribution
Banteng occur in a variety of habitats throughout their range, including open
In the past banteng were widespread in the Southeast Asian mainland, including
Interaction with humans
Human association with banteng could date back several millennia, as suggested by animal remains and art discovered in caves.[28][20] Hooijer opined that the earliest reference to the banteng was made by the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant in his 1800 account Outlines of the Globe, where he mentions a record of "wild oxen, of a reddish brown colour, with vast horns, and of a great size" in Java.[11] However, Hoogerwerf pointed out that the banteng may have been mentioned in literature as old as the Nagarakretagama (1365 AD), an eulogy to the Javanese king Hayam Wuruk, which includes a description of a royal hunt of several animals including banteng. Moreover, records from the 18th century show that banteng were used as beasts of burden to carry several items such as coffee plants.[20]
Domestication and uses
The banteng was domesticated in Indonesian islands of Java or Bali probably around 3,500 BC. The domesticated population consists of mainly the Bali cattle in Indonesia.[18][29] As of 2016, Bali cattle comprise nearly 25% of the Indonesian cattle population (2.45 million out of the total 9.8 million).[18] Domesticated banteng are docile and can tolerate hot, humid weather. Moreover, they can thrive and maintain their normal body weights even on poor quality fodder. They are primarily used for their highly demanded meat, that has been described as lean and soft.[17][30] They are also used as draught animals to a limited extent; banteng are reportedly less efficient than zebu in dragging carts on roads, though they are suitable for agricultural work.[31] However, banteng produce little milk; they lactate for only six to ten months, and the daily produce is just 0.9–2.8 kg (2.0–6.2 lb). They are also vulnerable to diseases such as bovine malignant catarrhal fever. In 1964, an outbreak of an unidentified disease, locally known as "jembrana", wiped out 10–60% of domesticated banteng populations in several areas in Bali; similar but less intense outbreaks have continued in the following years.[17] The disease was later determined to be caused by a lentivirus.[32]
In Australia
Domesticated banteng were first introduced to Australia in 1849 with the establishment of a British military outpost called Port Essington on Cobourg Peninsula. Twenty animals were taken to the western Arnhem Land, in present-day Northern Territory, as a source of meat. A year after the outpost's establishment, poor conditions including crop failure and tropical disease led to its abandonment. On the departure of British troops, the banteng were released from their grazing pastures and allowed to form a feral population.[33] By the 1960s, researchers realised that a population of about 1,500 individuals had developed in the tropical forests of Cobourg Peninsula.[34] As of 2007, around 8,000–10,000 feral banteng occur in Australia, mainly in Garig Gunak Barlu National Park (Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory).[35][36] In a survey published in 1990, the population density in the forests was found to be around 70/km2 (180/sq mi), close to that on their initial introduction 140 years ago.[37]
Australian banteng are considered a non-native
Hybrids
Domesticated banteng have been hybridised with other types of cattle.
As symbol
Certain elements in the Indonesian independent movements proposed it to be part of the Indonesian flag before the 1939 decided in favour of the plain red-and-white flag.[44]
The banteng's head appears as one of the five emblems in the shield of Indonesia's coat-of-arms, "Garuda Pancasila". The emblem appears on the top-left of the shield, representing the fourth principle of the Indonesian five-point state philosophy (Pancasila), "Democracy that is Guided by the Inner Wisdom in the Unanimity Arising Out of Deliberations Amongst Representatives". A number of political parties in the country used the banteng's head as its symbol, including the Indonesian National Party (of President Sukarno), the Indonesian Democratic Party, and the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (of Presidents Megawati Sukarnoputri and Joko Widodo).[45][46]
Threats and conservation
The wild banteng is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. In 2008, the IUCN estimated the global banteng population at 5,000–8,000 individuals. Rampant poaching (for food, game, traditional medicine and horns), habitat loss and fragmentation and susceptibility to disease are major threats throughout the range. Most populations throughout the range are small and isolated. Banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to protected areas.[2]
Most other populations are small and fragmented, and many are on the decline. Surveys in eastern Cambodia between 2009 and 2011 estimated the total population in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary at 1,980–5,170 individuals.[47] Surveys in the following years (up to 2016) in these sanctuaries and adjacent areas (such as the Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary) gave an approximate total of 4,600 individuals. Recent updates to these surveys suggest widespread collapse of these populations. The Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary population is estimated in have decline rapididly from 382 in 2010, with too few recorded in 2020 to produce a population estimate.[48] Populations in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary have declined from around 1000 in each site in 2010 to only 370 and 485 respectively in 2020.[49][50]
The only populations of more than 50 individuals in Thailand occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and possibly in the Kaeng Krachan National Park.[2] A survey between 2000 and 2003 in Java identified four to five significant populations, with the highest numbers in the Ujung Kulon National Park (300–800 individuals), the Baluran National Park (206 individuals) and the Meru Betiri National Park (200 individuals).[51] In East Java, a survey between 2011 and 2013 recorded rapid decline in populations in the Baluran National Park, though the numbers appeared to be stable in the Meru Betiri National Park; the researchers identified poaching, habitat disturbance, competition with other species, changes in vegetation cover and habitat loss as major threats.[52] In Borneo numbers have fallen in areas like Kalimantan and Sabah, mainly due to poaching and human disturbance. The steepest decline (by more than 50%) took place between 1970 and 2000 due to deforestation and conversion of forests into plantations. Minor populations have been reported from areas such as Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Deramakot Forest Reserve and Sipitang Forest Reserve during 2009–2015; individuals might still occur in the Belantikan Hulu region (Central Kalimantan), Kayan Mentarang National Park (North Kalimantan) and Kutai National Park (East Kalimantan).[2]
Threats to domesticated banteng
Since a small
Another possible threat is introgression with other cattle and similar bovids throughout their range where they coexist in the wild or due to crossbreeding programs, that may compromise the genetic integrity or purity of banteng populations.[31][2] This, coupled with possibly low genetic diversity in small, isolated populations, is a major concern in Sabah, where water buffaloes might crossbreed with wild banteng. However, little genetic research has been done in this area to conclusively establish the impact of such crossbreeding on banteng survival.[2] In a bid to protect the genetic purity of Bali cattle, Bali has banned other cattle varieties on the island.[31]
Cloning
The banteng is the second endangered species to be successfully
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