Bali
Bali | |
---|---|
Province of Bali | |
Int$ 11,673 (PPP) | |
- Growth[8] | 4.84% |
HDI | 78,01 (5th) – high |
Website | baliprov.go.id |
Official name | Cultural Landscape of Bali Province: the Subak System as a Manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana Philosophy |
Criteria | Cultural: (iii), (v), (vi) |
Reference | 1194 |
Inscription | 2012 (36th Session) |
Area | 19,519.9 ha (48,235 acres) |
Buffer zone | 1,454.8 ha (3,595 acres) |
Bali (/ˈbɑːli/; Balinese: ᬩᬮᬶ) is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast. The provincial capital, Denpasar,[9] is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar, in Eastern Indonesia. The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar is considered Bali's cultural centre. The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s, and becoming an Indonesian area of overtourism.[10] Tourism-related business makes up 80% of the Bali economy.[11]
Bali is the only
Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, especially fish and turtles.[14] In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean.[15] Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[16] It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling a specific geographic area. The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom. The royal houses are not recognised by the government of Indonesia; however, they originated before Dutch colonisation.[17]
History
Ancient
Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by
In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, the
Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where
Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly
The Hindu-Buddhist
Portuguese contacts
The first known
Dutch East Indies
In 1597, the Dutch colonizer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century. Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other.[27] In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms on the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.
In June 1860, the famous Welsh naturalist,
I was astonished and delighted; as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles (16 or 19 kilometres) inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of
The Dutch mounted large naval and ground
In the 1930s, anthropologists
During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, I Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers.[33]
Independence from the Dutch
In 1945, Bali was liberated by the British 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender. Once Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year.
In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed
Contemporary
The 1963 eruption of
The army became the dominant power as it instigated
As a result of the 1965–66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency. His "New Order" government re-established relations with Western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form. The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.[27]
On 27 November 2017, Mount Agung erupted five times, causing the evacuation of thousands, disrupting air travel and causing much environmental damage. Further eruptions also occurred between 2018 and 2019.[37]
On 15–16 November 2022, the 2022 G20 Bali summit, the seventeenth meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) was held in Nusa Dua.[38]
Geography
The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2.0 mi) east of
Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 2,000 metres (6,600 feet) in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur. The highest is Mount Agung (3,031 m; 9,944 ft), known as the "mother mountain", which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years.[40] In late 2017 Mount Agung started erupting and large numbers of people were evacuated, temporarily closing the island's airport.[41] Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee-producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables, and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km (47 mi) (see List of rivers of Bali).
The island is surrounded by
The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 726,800 (mid 2022).[2] Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 150,000 people in 2020.[42] Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.[43]
Three small islands lie to the immediate south-east and all are administratively part of the
To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.
Climate
Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate all year round. Average year-round temperature stands at around 30 °C (86 °F) with a humidity level of about 85%.[44]
Daytime temperatures at low elevations vary between 20 and 33 °C (68 and 91 °F), but the temperatures decrease significantly with increasing elevation.
The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. During the rainy season, there are comparatively fewer tourists seen in Bali. During the Easter and Christmas holidays, the weather is very unpredictable. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas.
Ecology
Bali lies just to the west of the
Until the early 20th century, Bali was possibly home to several large mammals: banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger. The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937 when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.[47] Pleistocene and Holocene megafaunas include banteng and giant tapir (based on speculations that they might have reached up to the Wallace Line),[48] and rhinoceros.[49]
Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python. The water monitor can grow to at least 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length and 50 kg (110 lb)[50] and can move quickly.
The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as
A team of scientists surveyed from 29 April 2011, to 11 May 2011, at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk,
Among the larger trees the most common are:
Environment
Over-exploitation by the tourist industry has led to 200 out of 400 rivers on the island drying up. Research suggests that the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage.[55] To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.[56]
A 2010 Environment Ministry report on its environmental quality index gave Bali a score of 99.65, which was the highest score of Indonesia's 33 provinces. The score considers the level of
Erosion at Lebih Beach has seen seven metres (23 feet) of land lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.[58]
In 2017, a year when Bali received nearly 5.7 million tourists, government officials declared a "garbage emergency" in response to the covering of 3.6-mile stretch of coastline in plastic waste brought in by the tide, amid concerns that the pollution could dissuade visitors from returning.[59] Indonesia is one of the world's worst plastic polluters, with some estimates suggesting the country is the source of around 10 per cent of the world's plastic waste.
Government
Politics
In the
Administrative divisions
The province is divided into eight
Name of City or Regency |
Capital | Area in km2 |
Pop'n 2000 Census |
Pop'n 2010 Census |
Pop'n 2020 Census |
Pop'n mid 2022 Estimate |
HDI[66] 2023 estimate |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Denpasar City | Denpasar | 127.78 | 532,440 | 788,589 | 725,314 | 726,800 | 0.847 (Very High) |
Badung Regency | Mangupura | 418.62 | 345,863 | 543,332 | 548,191 | 549,500 | 0.831 (Very High) |
Bangli Regency | Bangli |
490.71 | 193,776 | 215,353 | 258,721 | 267,100 | 0.708 (High) |
Buleleng Regency | Singaraja | 1,364.73 | 558,181 | 624,125 | 791,813 | 825,100 | 0.740 (High) |
Gianyar Regency | Gianyar |
368.00 | 393,155 | 469,777 | 515,344 | 524,000 | 0.792 (High) |
Jembrana Regency | Negara | 841.80 | 231,806 | 261,638 | 317,064 | 327,900 | 0.740 (High) |
Karangasem Regency | Amlapura | 839.54 | 360,486 | 396,487 | 492,402 | 511,300 | 0.689 (Medium) |
Klungkung Regency | Semarapura | 315.00 | 155,262 | 170,543 | 206,925 | 214,000 | 0.731 (High) |
Tabanan Regency | Tabanan |
1,013.88 | 376,030 | 420,913 | 461,630 | 469,300 | 0.774 (High) |
Totals | 5,780.06 | 3,146,999 | 3,890,757 | 4,317,404 | 4,415,100 | 0.771 (High) |
Economy
In the 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment.
Agriculture
Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer.[69] Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.
The
Tourism
No. | Country | Tourists |
---|---|---|
1 | Australia | 1,225,425 |
2 | China | 1,185,764 |
3 | India | 371,850 |
4 | United Kingdom | 283,539 |
5 | United States | 273,317 |
6 | Japan | 257,897 |
7 | South Korea | 213,324 |
8 | France | 206,814 |
9 | Germany | 194,773 |
10 | Malaysia | 184,477 |
As of 2019[72] |
In 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno and boosted tourism in Bali. Before the Bali Beach Hotel construction, there were only three significant tourist-class hotels on the island.[73] Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali. Tourism further increased in Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970. The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare.
The
The United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012, because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning.[74][failed verification] Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015, due to new terrorist threats.[75]
An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak, and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the island's south side. Expensive villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic, many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active, and investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.
In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors with improved value for their currencies.
Bali's tourism economy survived the
Bali received the Best Island award from
In 2006, Elizabeth Gilbert's memoir Eat, Pray, Love was published, and in August 2010 it was adapted into the film Eat Pray Love. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach in Bali. Both the book and the film fuelled a boom in tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist centre that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance and love through traditional spirituality and healing.[79]
In January 2016, after musician
Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list while India has also emerged as a greater supply of tourists. Chinese tourists increased by 17% in 2011 from 2010 due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.[81] In January 2012, Chinese tourists increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% year on year.[82]
Bali authorities reported the island had 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists.[83]
Based on a
In January 2020, 10,000 Chinese tourists cancelled trips to Bali due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[85] Because of the COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions, Bali welcomed 1.07 million international travelers in 2020, most of them between January and March, which is -87% compared to 2019. In the first half of 2021, they welcomed 43 international travelers.[86] The pandemic presented a major blow on Bali's tourism-dependent economy. On 3 February 2022, Bali reopened again for the first foreign tourists after 2 years of being closed due to the pandemic.[87]
In 2022 Indonesia's Minister of Health, Budi Sadikin, stated that the tourism industry in Bali will be complemented by the medical industry.[88]
At the beginning of 2023, the governor of Bali demanded a ban on the use of motorcycles by tourists. This happened after a series of accidents. Wayan Koster proposed to cancel the violators' visas. The move sparked widespread outrage on social media.[89]
Transportation
The
A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching 1,750 m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar. Bali has no railway lines. There is a car ferry between Gilimanuk on the west coast of Bali to Ketapang on Java.
In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million.[90] On 17 July 2011, the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about 400 metres (1,300 feet) away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour. The current pier is only 154 metres (505 feet) but will eventually be extended to 300 to 350 metres (980–1,150 feet) to accommodate international cruise ships. The harbour is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields.[91] The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation was unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.[92]
A memorandum of understanding was signed by two ministers, Bali's governor and
On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine.[96] Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector.[97] In 2013, The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry advised that 306 cruise liners were scheduled to visit Indonesia, an increase of 43 per cent compared to the previous year.[98]
In May 2011, an integrated Area Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all
On 21 December 2011, construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road, which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles. This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of the shares. PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the 9.91-kilometre-long (6.16-mile) toll road (totally 12.7 kilometres (7.89 miles) with access road). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million). The project goes through 2 kilometres (1 mile) of mangrove forest and through 2.3 kilometres (1.4 miles) of beach, both within 5.4 hectares (13 acres) area. The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars that occupied two hectares of mangrove forest. This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road. On 21 December 2011, the Dewa Ruci 450-metre (1,480-foot) underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget.[101][102][103] On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass being opened previously.[104]
To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar, and Tohpati, and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport.[105]
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1971 | 2,120,322 | — |
1980 | 2,469,930 | +16.5% |
1990 | 2,777,811 | +12.5% |
1995 | 2,895,649 | +4.2% |
2000 | 3,146,999 | +8.7% |
2005 | 3,378,092 | +7.3% |
2010 | 3,890,757 | +15.2% |
2015 | 4,148,588 | +6.6% |
2020 | 4,317,404 | +4.1% |
2022 | 4,415,100 | +2.3% |
sources:[106] |
The population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 census, and 4,317,404 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 4,415,100.[107] In 2021, the Indonesian Ministry of Justice estimated that there were 109,801 foreigners living on Bali, with most originating from Russia, the USA, Australia, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, Italy, and the Netherlands.[108]
Ethnic origins
A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al.
Caste system
Pre-modern Bali had four castes, as Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis state, but with a "very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence".[110] The four castes have been classified as Sudra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satria (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin).[111]
The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that the Balinese caste system had Indian origins, but Helen Creese states that scholars such as Brumund who had visited and stayed on the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the "received understandings concerning its Indian origins".[112] In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelt Soedra) has typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes.[113] In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite meweda (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.[113]
Religion
About 87.91% of Bali's population adheres to
The general beliefs and practices of Agama Hindu Dharma mix ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of
Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, which arrived through
The Bali tradition adopted the pre-existing animistic traditions of the indigenous people. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual. Ritualising states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.[123]
Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist
-
Penataran Lempuyang Temple, Gunung Lempuyang, Bali
-
Saint Joseph's Church, Denpasar
-
Ling Sii Miao Buddhist Temple, Denpasar
-
Ibnu Batutah Mosque, Kuta
Language
Culture
Architecture
Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to one's orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.[128][129]
Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance, and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the temple's walls and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.[130]
Dances
Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of
Festivals
Throughout the year, there are many festivals celebrated locally or island-wide according to the traditional calendars.
Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual),
Tradition
Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied.[135] Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.[135]
Other than Balinese sacred rituals and festivals, the government presents
One unusual tradition is the naming of children in Bali. In general, Balinese people name their children depending on the order they are born, and the names are the same for both males and females.
Beauty pageant
Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant). It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant. In 2022, Bali also co-hosted Miss Grand International 2022 along with Jakarta, West Java, and Banten.
Sports
Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan.[137]
As part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs, and tropical aquatic life.
Bali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games.[138] It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games.
In 2023, Bali was the location for a major eSports event, the Dota 2 Bali Major, the third and final Major of the Dota Pro Circuit season. The event was held at the Ayana Estate and the Champa Garden, and it was the first time that a Dota Pro Circuit Major was held in Indonesia.[139]
In
Heritage sites
In June 2012,
See also
References
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Bibliography
- Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort; Bruce Carpenter, Barski (2007). Bali and Lombok. Dorling Kindersley, London. ISBN 978-0-7566-2878-9.
- Haer, Debbie Guthrie; ISBN 978-981-4217-35-4.
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- Pringle, Robert (2004). Bali: Indonesia's Hindu Realm; A short history of. Short History of Asia Series. ISBN 1-86508-863-3.
Further reading
- Black, Robert (2012). Bali Fungus. Snake Scorpion Press. ISBN 978-1-4775-0824-4.
- Copeland, Jonathan (2010). Secrets of Bali: Fresh Light on the Morning of the World. Orchid Press. ISBN 978-974-524-118-3.
- Cotterell, Arthur (2015). Bali: A cultural history, Signal Books ISBN 9781909930179
- ISBN 9625930604
- Klemen, L (1999–2000). "Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.
- ISBN 978-962-593-629-1.
- Shavit, David (2006). Bali and the Tourist Industry: A History, 1906–1942. McFarland & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-1572-4.
- Vickers, Adrian (1994). Travelling to Bali: Four Hundred Years of Journeys. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-967-65-3081-3.
- Vickers, Adrian (2012). Bali: A Paradise Created. Tuttle. ISBN 978-0-8048-4260-0.
- Whitten, Anthony J.; Roehayat Emon Soeriaatmadja; Suraya A. Afiff (1997). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-072-5.
- Wijaya, Made (2003). Architecture of Bali: A Source Book of Traditional and Modern Forms. Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-34192-6.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. .
- Bali provincial government official website
- Geographic data related to Bali at OpenStreetMap