Boers
Boere | |
---|---|
Boers (
In addition, the term Boeren also applied to those who left the
The term Afrikaners or Afrikaans people[6][7][8] is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek.
Origin
European colonists
The
Free Burghers
VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers. As a result Jan van Riebeeck approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Groeneveld and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants.[9]
In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous
Dutch free immigrants
VOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success. They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but the Cape had little charm in comparison. In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December. Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg.[11]
French Huguenots
During 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots, who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They joined colonies at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl.[12] The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French. The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony.
At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity.
Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the VOC. VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions.
Trekboers
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2021) |
From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of freeburghers but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well.
The
-
Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene near Graaff-Reinet, by Burchell
-
Passing Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, by Charles Collier Michell
-
An aquatint by Samuel Daniell of Trekboers making camp
-
Trekboers crossing the Karoo by Charles Davidson Bell
It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at
The trekboers of the 19th century[who?] were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal. If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th.[citation needed][clarification needed]
The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment.
The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek, had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property.
-
A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800)
-
Evolution of the Dutch Cape Colony (1700–1800)
-
Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony
Invasion of the Cape Colony
The
When the
Dislike of British rule
Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery. [13] Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country.[citation needed]
Slachter's Nek
A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small
Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879)
The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War.[14]
The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet. The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803).[14]
Peace was restored to the area when the British, under the Treaty of Amiens, returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803. In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg. Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811. Conflicts between the Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819.[14]
The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier. The Cape government responded with several military expeditions. In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War. Additional fortifications were built by the government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847). The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors. Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control.[14]
Great Trek
The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into the great plains beyond the
The Boers addressed several correspondence to the British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure.
Boer states and republics
As the
Description | Dates | Area |
---|---|---|
Republic of Swellendam | 17 June - 4 November 1795 | Swellendam, Western Cape
|
Republic of Graaff-Reinet | 1 February 1795–November 1796 | Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape
|
Zoutpansberg | 1835–1864 | Limpopo |
Winburg | 1836–1844 | Free State |
Potchefstroom | 1837–1844 | North West |
Natalia Republic | 1839–1902 | Eastern Cape |
Winburg-Potchefstroom | 1844–1843 | Potchefstroom, North West
|
Republic of Klip River | 1847–1848 | Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal |
Lydenburg Republic |
1849–1860 | Lydenburg, Mpumalanga
|
Utrecht Republic |
1852–1858 | Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal
|
South African Republic | 1852–1877, 1881–1902 | Gauteng, Limpopo |
Orange Free State | 1854–1902 | Free State |
Klein Vrystaat | 1876–1891 | Piet Retief, Mpumalanga
|
State of Goshen | 1882–1883 | North West |
Republic of Stellaland |
1882–1883 | North West |
United States of Stellaland | 1883–1885 | North West |
New Republic | 1884–1888 | Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal
|
Republic of Upingtonia/Lijdensrust | 1885–1887 | Namibia |
Anglo-Boer wars
Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek) and the Orange Free State, remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902.[16]
Boer War diaspora
After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil. Another group emigrated to British colony of Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States.
1914 Boer Revolt
The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British.[citation needed]
Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie, an officer in the Union Defence Force, was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914.
Characteristics
Language
Afrikaans is a
Culture
The desire to wander, known as trekgees, was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse, and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland ('Dorsland') Trek.[22] One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home".[22] A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation.[2]
The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC.[23]
Beliefs
The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism.[23]
The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from the Trekboer group.[24]
The Boers possessed a distinct
The
Modern usage
During recent times, mainly during the
They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the
The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.[25]
Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term Boerevolk ('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the Boerevolk with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the Boerevolk have reasserted use of this designation.[25]
The supporters of the Boer designation view the term Afrikaner as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate the Boers into the new politically-based cultural label.[28][29][30]
In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably.[dubious ] The Boers are the smaller segment within the Afrikaner designation,[original research?] as the Afrikaners of Cape Dutch origin are more numerous. Afrikaner directly translated means African, and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population.[31] [verification needed]
During apartheid, Boer was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party, or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as Boere) and Army, Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally.[32][33] This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa.[34][7][35]
Politics
- Boere-Vryheidsbeweging
- Boerestaat Party
- Freedom Front Plus
- Front National
- Herstigte Nasionale Party
- National Conservative Party of South Africa
Education
The Movement for Christian-National Education is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12.[36]
Media
Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like
Territories
Territorial areas in the form of a Boerestaat ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably
Notable Boers
Voortrekker leaders
- Sarel Cilliers
- Andries Hendrik Potgieter
- Andries Pretorius
- Piet Retief
Great trek
Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War
- Koos de la Rey, general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War
- Danie Theron, soldier
- Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general
- Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some
Politicians
- Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general
- Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic
- Transvaal Republic
- Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th State President of the Orange Free State
Spies
- Robey Leibbrandt
- Fritz Joubert Duquesne, Boer captain known as the Black Panther who served in the Second Boer War
In modern fiction
The history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novel The Covenant by American author James A. Michener.
See also
- Boerboel
- Boerehaat
- Boer goat
- Boer music
- Great Trek
- Natalia Republic
- Orange Free State
- South African farm attacks
- South African Republic
- Transvaal civil war
- Transvaal Colony
- Volkstaat
- Voortrekker
Notes
- ^ Afrikaans is a daughter language of Dutch; see Booij 1999, p. 2, Jansen, Schreuder & Neijt 2007, p. 5, Mennen, Levelt & Gerrits 2006, p. 1, Booij 2003, p. 4, Hiskens, Auer & Kerswill 2005, p. 19, Heeringa & de Wet 2007, pp. 1, 3, 5.
Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; see Deumert & Vandenbussche 2003, p. 16, Conradie 2005, p. 208, Sebba 1997, p. 160, Langer & Davies 2005, p. 144, Deumert 2002, p. 3, Berdichevsky 2004, p. 130.
Afrikaans is rooted in seventeenth century dialects of Dutch; see Holm 1989, p. 338, Geerts & Clyne 1992, p. 71, Mesthrie 1995, p. 214, Niesler, Louw & Roux 2005, p. 459.
Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partially creolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; see Sebba 2007, p. 116.
References
- ^ Stürmann, Jan (2005). New Coffins, Old Flags, Microorganisms and the Future of the Boer. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ a b Du Toit, Brian M. (1998). The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity. p. 1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ a b
Trewhella Cameron; S. B. Spies (October 1991). A new illustrated history of South Africa. Southern Book Publishers. ISBN 9781868123612.
- ISBN 0-624-00533-X.
- ^
Compare:Walker, Eric Anderson (1936). "14: The Formation of new states, 1835–1854". In Walker, Eric Anderson (ed.). The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Vol. 8: South Africa, Rhodesia and the protectorates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 320–321. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
In the latter part of 1834, the frontier districts were full of talk of a mass trek. Exploring parties rode out to South-West Africa, to the north-eastern Transvaal, and along the coast belt to Natal. [...] These preparations are conclusive evidence against the traditional idea that the two primary causes of the Great Trek were the inadequate compensation paid for emancipated slaves and the upsetting of D'Urban's settlement of the eastern frontier after the Kaffir War of 1834–5 by the combined forces of Downing Street and Exeter Hall. It is true that many Trekkers, and those the most vocal, came from the eastern frontier lands, but others came from the northern districts where there was no Kaffir menace. The overthrow of the settlement was only a subsidiary cause though a powerful one.
- ^ Pollak, Sorcha. "'The Irish remind me of Afrikaans people. They're quite reserved'". The Irish Times. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
- ^ a b "Don't call me a boer". www.iol.co.za. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
- ^ "Afrikaans culture (ZA)". www.southafrica.net. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
- ^ Precis of the Archives of the Cape of Good Hope, January 1652 – December 1658, Riebeeck's Journal, H.C.V. Leibrandt, pp. 47–48
- ^ ISBN 978-1904744955.
- ^ G. M. Theal (1888). History of South Africa. London. pp. 205–206
- ^ H. C. Viljoen, "The Contribution of the Huguenots in South Africa", 25 October 2009
- ^ Theal, George McCall (1894). History of South Africa (5th ed.). London: S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey, & Co. pp. 101–111.
- ^ a b c d "A short chronicle of warfare in South Africa", Compiled by the Military Information Bureau, Published: Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, Vol. 16, Nr. 13, 1986
- ^ History of the Emigrant Boers in South Africa, 2nd ed, G.M. Theal, London 1888.
- ISBN 978-1-58648-473-6.
- ^ K. Pithouse, C. Mitchell, R. Moletsane, Making Connections: Self-Study & Social Action, p.91
- OL 5361614M.
- ^ "Herkomst en groei van het Afrikaans – G.G. Kloeke (1950)" (PDF).
- ISSN 2224-3380.
- ^ Standaard Afrikaans (PDF). Afrikaner Pers. 1948. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Ransford, Oliver (1973). "13: Epilogue". The Great Trek. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ a b Mills, Wallace G. "White Settlers in South Africa to 1870". Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ Ransford, Oliver (1973). "1: Trekboers". The Great Trek. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ a b c Yolandi Groenewald. "Bang bang – you’re dead", Mail & Guardian Online.
- ^ Dr. Tobias Louw. "Open Letter to the Institute for Security Studies", 1 October 2003
- ^ "The Sand River Convention".
- ^ Yolandi Groenewald. Bang bang – you're dead.", Mail & Guardian Online, March 2007
- ^ Sandra Swart. Journal of Southern African Studies. 30.4, Dec 2004 Archived 8 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Adriana Stuijt (former South African journalist). "Boer, Afrikaner Or White – Which Are You?" 2004.
- OCLC 965506087.
- ^ Quintal, Genevieve (19 May 2011). "'Shoot the boer': Lost in translation?". The M&G Online. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^ Brkic, Branko (29 March 2010). "'Kill the Boer': a brief history". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^ "Boer - definition of Boer in A Dictionary of South African English - DSAE". dsae.co.za. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
- ^ "ConCourt rules 'boer' not offensive racist term | eNCA". www.enca.com. Archived from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
- ^ "Beweging vir Christelik Volkseie Onderwys". Retrieved 1 December 2011.
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- Booij, Geert (1999). The Phonology of Dutch. )
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- Conradie, C. Jac (2005), "The final stages of deflection – The case of Afrikaans "het"", Historical Linguistics 2005, ISBN 9027247994, retrieved 29 May 2010
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- Deumert, Ana; Vandenbussche, Wim (2003), "Germanic standardizations: past to present", Trends in Linguistics, ISBN 9027218560, retrieved 28 May 2010
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External links
- Media related to Boers at Wikimedia Commons
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 469–81. .
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905. .