Ottoman Cyprus
Eyalet-i Ḳıbrıṣ Ottoman Turkish: سانجاغى قبرص 1670–1703 1784–1878 | |||||||||
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Colony of the Ottoman Empire | |||||||||
1571–1878 | |||||||||
Ottoman Cyprus in 1609 in red. The rest of the Ottoman Empire in light-yellow | |||||||||
Capital | Nicosia | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
• Established | 1571 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1878 | ||||||||
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Today part of | Cyprus Northern Cyprus Akrotiri and Dhekelia |
History of Cyprus |
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Cyprus portal |
The Eyalet of Cyprus (
Ottoman raids and conquest
During
In the summer of 1570, the Ottomans struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Lala Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. The city fell on September 9, 1570; 20,000 Nicosians were massacred and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold as slaves were spared.[5][6]
Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. The citizens of Famagusta, on the other hand, led by Venetian commander Marco Antonio Bragadin, put up a heroic resistance which led to the siege of the city for about a year, from September 1570 until August 1571. When the Ottomans eventually breached the fortifications, a massacre of most remaining Christians in the city followed, despite the Ottoman commander previously agreeing that in return for the city's surrender, Christians would be guaranteed safe passage to Crete. Bragadin had his ears and nose cut off and, after thrown in prison for two weeks, he was dragged round the walls with sacks of earth and stone on his back, then tied naked to a column in the main square and skinned alive.[7][8][9][10]
The fall of Famagusta marked the end of the Venetian rule and the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus, with Lala Mustafa Pasha becoming the island’s first Turkish Governor.
On 25 May 1571,
In 1573 the Venetians left Cyprus, removing the influence of the
Administrative history
As soon as Nicosia was conquered, Cyprus was declared an
.These kazas each had their own
However, after the
Greek Cypriots had two very important administrative positions: the Archbishop, who headed the Orthodox Church, was recognized as the sole representative of the Greek Cypriot population from the 1670s onwards, and the Dragoman, chosen from the candidates determined by the Archbishop.[11]
The muhassıl administration slowly became more and more dysfunctional. In 1764, muhassıl
In 1861, Cyprus became an independent
Social history
The Ottoman occupation brought about two radical changes to the history of the island: A new ethnic element appeared on the island, the Turks, while Cypriots now had a new ruler, the Ottomans.
The Ottoman Empire gave timars—land grants—to soldiers under the condition that they and their families would stay there permanently. An action of far-reaching importance because the predefined soldiers became the nucleus of the island's Turkish community. During the 17th century the Turkish population grew rapidly, partly by Greek conversion (including converts who retained some pre-Islamic practices) joined to them. Most of the Turks who had settled on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus—although not sovereignty[clarification needed]—was ceded to Britain in 1878. The distinction between the two groups was by both religion and language.
The Ottomans applied the
Greek independence movement
Rise of nationalism in the Balkans Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire |
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1821–1829
Many Greek Cypriots supported the Greek independence effort that began in 1821, leading to severe reprisals by the Ottoman Empire. On 15 October 1821, a massive Turkish mob seized and hanged an archbishop, five bishops, thirty six ecclesiastics, and hanged most of the Greek Cypriots in Larnaca and the other towns. By September 1822, sixty-two Cypriot villages and hamlets had entirely disappeared.[17][18]
1869–1878
In 1869 the
Architecture and public works
Architecture
During the Ottoman era, numerous mosques,
The two surviving caravanserais are the monumental Büyük Han and Kumarcilar Han in Nicosia, considered to be some of the finest examples of Ottoman architecture in the island. The best known of the many libraries is the Library of Mahmud II.[21] Bazaars were very important parts of Ottoman commercial lives and in 1872, 23 bazaars were present in Nicosia alone, each with its own specialty.[22] In 1883, waqf reports published by the British authorities in Cyprus listed 81 mosques that belonged to the Evkaf Administration in Cyprus. This figure is believed to be a major underestimation by archaeologist Tuncer Bağışkan.[23] Two of the most prominent Muslim religious sites built in the Ottoman period are Hala Sultan Tekke in Larnaca and Arab Ahmet Mosque in Nicosia.
Infrastructure
The Ottoman administration brought a significant improvement to Cyprus in terms of water supply. The most notable example of this is the
The authorities also encouraged the construction and improvement of artificial channels for water supply and irrigation, which greatly increased crop yield and allowed large-scale fruit production. Among villages described as prosperous due to artificial irrigation upon the British takeover of the island are Morphou, Lapithos, Polis, Lefka, Avdimou and Kolossi. Samuel Baker, who visited Cyprus in 1879, noted "mills turned by water" and "narrow lanes streaming with water" in Lefka. He also wrote that "every garden and farm was irrigated by water conducted from the mountains in artificial channels" in the northern slopes of the Kyrenia Mountains extending to the Karpas Peninsula. In Karavas, streams were diverted into artificial channels to supply water to the village.[26]
In the 19th century, a major effort was undertaken by a series of Ottoman governors to straighten and regulate the course of the Pedieos. Edhem Pasha, who served as governor in the 1840s, completed the construction of the Larnaca-Nicosia road and several bridges. Governor Mehmet Halet in the 1850s further improved the road network and harbour of Larnaca and established a grain store and market in Nicosia to encourage cattle breeding.[27]
See also
References
- Notes
- ^ "Some Provinces of the Ottoman Empire". Geonames.de. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ Library of the US Congress
- ^ An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire, p. 137, at Google Books
- ^ a b Library of Congress
- ^ Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (Essential Histories Series #62). Osprey Publishing. p. 58
- ^ Hopkins, T. C. F. (2007). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom Vs. Islam. Macmillan p.82
- ^ Foglietta, U. (1903) The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London: Waterlow.
- ^ Alvise Zorzi (1988) La République du Lion, Histoire de Venise.
- ^ Monello, G. (2006) Accadde a Famagosta, l'assedio turco ad una fortezza veneziana ed il suo sconvolgente finale", Cagliari, Scepsi e Mattana.
- ^ Madden, Thomas F (2012) Venice : A New History (Hardback). New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02542-8
- ^ İslam Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 25. Türk Diyanet Vakfı. 2002. pp. 374–380.
- Adnan Menderes University, retrieved 26 April 2016
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 97.
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 98.
- ISBN 978-1-108-02065-7. Retrieved 2013-05-28.
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 99.
- ^ Claude Delaval Cobham, Exerpta Cypria Archived 2015-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press (1908) p. 454-455
- ISBN 1-85065-072-1
- ^ Bağışkan, p. 6.
- ISBN 9781134613656.
- ^ Bağışkan, p. 12.
- ^ Bağışkan, p. 13.
- ^ Bağışkan, p. 7.
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 138-9
- ^ Keshishian, Kevork K. (1978). Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now. The Mouflon Book and Art Centre. p. 94-98
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 143-7
- ^ Gazioğlu, p. 142
- Bibliography
- Cyprus under Ottoman Empire by Official Republic of Cyprus Web site.
- Bağışkan, Tuncer (2005), Kıbrıs'ta Osmanlı Türk Eserleri, Turkish Cypriot Association of Museum Lovers
- Foglietta, U. The sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London:Waterlow, 1903.
- Gazioglu, Ahmet C. The Turks in Cyprus: A province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878). London: Rustem & Bro., 1990.
- Hill, George (1952). A History of Cyprus, Volume 4: The Ottoman Province. The British Colony, 1571–1948. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511751738.
- Jennings, Ronald C. Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean world, 1571–1640. New York: New York University Press, 1993.
- Katsiaounis, Rolandos. Labour, society and politics in Cyprus during the second half of the 19th century. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1996.
- Koumoulides, John. Cyprus and the war of Greek Independence, 1821–1829. London: Zeno, 1974.
- Kyrris, Costas, P. The Kanakaria documents, 1666–1850. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Center, 1978.
- Luke, Harry. Cyprus under the Turks, 1571–1878. London: Hurst, 1969.(Reprint of 1921 edition.)
- Mariti, Giovanni. Travels in the island of Cyprus. (C. D. Cobham translator). London: Zeno, 1971. (Reprint of 1909 edition.)
- Michael, Michalis N.; Kappler, Matthias; Gavriel, Eftihios (eds.). Ottoman Cyprus. A Collection of Studies on History and Culture. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009.
- Özkul, Ali Efdal (2005). Kıbrıs'ın Sosyo-Ekonomik Tarihi: 1726-1750 (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
- Papadopoullos, T. Social and historical data on population:1570–1881. Nicosia: Zavallis Press, 1965.
- Proxenika egrafa tou 19o aionos. (Consular documents of the 19th century.) Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1980.
- Ross, L. A journey to Cyprus. (February and March 1845). (C. D.Cobham translator). Nicosia: Government Printing House, 1910.
- Salvator, Louis. Levkosia: The capital of Cyprus. London Trigraph,1983. (Reprint of 1881 edition.)
- Sant Cassia, Paul. "Religion, politics and ethnicity in Cyprus during the Turkocratia(1571–1878)." Archives Europeennes de Sociologie, Tome XXVII, No. 1, 1986