English Wars (Scandinavia)
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English Wars | |||||||||
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Part of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars | |||||||||
Battle of Copenhagen, by John Thomas Serres | |||||||||
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The English Wars (
Prelude
After the death of Denmark-Norway's foreign minister
In December 1799 an English sailor attempting to check a Danish-flagged ship at Gibraltar was killed. When in 1800 it appeared that Russia would head a new League of Armed Neutrality Great Britain reacted, in summer that year having a squadron of 130 guns try to inspect a Danish convoy escorted by the 40-gun frigate Freya at Ostend. In accordance with his orders the captain of the Freya refused and gave battle, but was forced to strike its flag after an hour. This led to Denmark-Norway asking Russia to join the Armed Neutrality, though in August a British fleet arrived off Copenhagen. Under threat of a British bombardment Christian Bernstorff promised to stop convoys temporarily while Denmark and Great Britain set up common rules on how and when convoys were to be used.
The following month a Russian ambassador arrived in Denmark with a formal invitation for the country to join the League of Armed Neutrality together with Sweden, Russia and Prussia (headed by Tsar Paul I of Russia) which it did in December 1800. However, in 1801 the tsar signed an alliance with France, and Russia and France then forced through the closure of all European ports to British trade, leading the United Kingdom to demand that Denmark-Norway immediately leave the League. However, such a departure would make Denmark-Norway appear to ally itself with the United Kingdom and thus almost certainly lead to its being invaded by one of France or Russia's allies (Sweden had an eye to gaining Norway from Denmark and, if Prussia could conquer Jutland at the same time, British access to the Baltic Sea could be completely cut off). Denmark-Norway, believing it would be able to conduct a naval war with Britain far more successfully than a land war with Prussia, Russia and Sweden, rejected all British proposals for negotiations. The United Kingdom thus sent a fleet against Denmark on 12 March 1801 to remove Denmark-Norway from the League via a military action.
Course
Copenhagen (1801)
The Danes had begun to prepare for a possible attack from the British, but much of the fleet was, in late March, not ready after the winter and would take up to six weeks to make it ready. So the Danish defense plan was that the ships available should protect the entrance to Copenhagen by lying anchored in the curved line from Trekroner Fort to Amager. Command was given to Olfert Fischer, who placed himself in the middle of the formation, with his ship Dannebrog. Crew was lacking on various ships so additional crew was acquired by offering 15 "rigsdaler" in wages, followed by a quick training in how to use a cannon and an order to fight bravely for "king and country".
The British fleet passed Kronborg unimpeded on 30 March and continued towards Copenhagen along the Swedish coast. Crown Prince Frederick had, out of fear that the Swedes would be exempted from the Sound Dues, refused offers of help from them for the upcoming battle. The Swedish Navy was still, at the initiative of King Gustav IV Adolf, on their way to help the Danes, but was impeded bad weather.[1] By midday the British fleet had anchored at Taarbæk reef. Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's plan was that half of his fleet would attack the Danish fleet from the south, while the rest would engage the Danish blockade in Kronløbet. The attack was then to be concluded by an attack on the island of Trekroner. In the following days the British prepared to attack, and they sailed further south, past Copenhagen, to avoid the Danish land batteries at Sixtus, Quintus and Trekroner.[2]
Lord
Aftermath
While the British fleet were heading to Denmark the political situation changed drastically. On 21 March the British had entered into peace negotiations with France, and on 24 March, they had sent diplomats to Russia in order to clear the way for a political understanding. The British did not know that shortly afterwards the tsar was to be assassinated, and his son Alexander would take over the throne.[7] Tsar Alexander would also prove to be much more interested in improving diplomatic relations with the British than his father had been. Due to the death of Tsar Paul, the League of Armed Neutrality was to be dissolved.
The Swedish King, Gustav IV Adolf, chose to look at Denmark-Norway's truce with Britain as treason against the League of Armed Neutrality, and exploited this by playing on Denmark-Norway's weak position in
Prussia, who Denmark-Norway had contributed to push into the League of Armed Neutrality, had withdrawn from the league as soon as the news of Tsar Paul's assassination reached Berlin. At the same time Prussia now demanded that Denmark-Norway should cede Hamburg, while Prussia kept both Hanover and Saxe-Lauenburg. Denmark-Norway, who had been forced to accept several bitter diplomatic defeats due to their neutrality policy, now turned to Britain through direct negotiations with Lord Hawkesbury. Christian Bernstorff had in late May traveled to London in order to negotiate the return of the parts of the Danish-Norwegian fleet that had been captured by the British during the Battle of Copenhagen. At the same time, Bernstorff also negotiated regarding a possible British withdrawal from the Danish-Norwegian colonies they had occupied during the short conflict. But the negotiations between Denmark-Norway and the United Kingdom would prove to be useless since Denmark had neither anything to offer nor anything to threaten the United Kingdom with.
Interval
Although Denmark-Norway had to give up parts of its neutral policy after the defeat in 1801, the country could continue its trade with both Britain and France until the war broke out again between the two countries in May 1803. The war led to further hostilities between France and the Austrian Empire, and after Napoleon's victory over Austrian and Russian troops at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805, the French ruled over most of Central Europe. During the summer of 1806 war also broke out between France and Prussia, and French forces began to advance rapidly towards Denmark's borders after the decisive victory over Prussia at Jena, on 14 October 1806.
Denmark was now forced to react and Crown Prince Frederick stationed the majority of his army in Holstein, both as a proof that he did not want to participate in the hostilities in northern Germany and as protection in case of a French invasion. But it would gradually get worse for Denmark-Norway to maintain its neutrality, and especially after Napoleon's final defeat of Prussia in the autumn of 1806, when the French emperor on 21 November that year declared the founding of the Continental System against the United Kingdom. This blockade that would close the entire European continent from trading with Britain, led the United Kingdom, as a reaction, to declare prohibition of neutral ships to trade with France and its allies.
After the Treaties of Tilsit on 7 July 1807 Russia also joined the Continental System, as well as France, and Russia agreed to force the other neutral European countries to join the blockade. When this became known, the British government decided to issue Denmark-Norway an ultimatum: Denmark should either join the British alliance, and place its fleet under British command, or disclose the fleet as collateral for its continued neutrality. The reason for this ultimatum was the existing of suspicions that Denmark would incorporate its fleet with the French, or the fear that the French would secure the Danish fleet through military means. For Crown Prince Frederick, the British demands were unrealistic, because if Denmark allied itself with Britain the country would be attacked by France, and the possibilities for Swedish and British forces to be able to help Denmark in defending the country was minimal.[8]
Copenhagen (1807)
Since Denmark-Norway refused to accept the British ultimatum, Britain chose to land a major force in Zealand at Vedbæk on 16 August 1807 without any formal declaration of war, and since King Christian VII and Crown Prince Frederick were in Holstein with the majority of the Danish army, the newly appointed commander Ernst Peymann had to face the British landing force with an inferior number of untrained militia.[9] The British quickly initiated the siege of Copenhagen and minor skirmishes occurred south of the capital. On 29 August, a large force of the Danish Militia were also defeated at Køge by British forces under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley.[10]
Since any attempt to defeat the British land forces failed and since the Danish fleet were not ready for battle, the Danes prepared for a British assault on the capital. But the attack never came, because instead of attacking Copenhagen the British began to bombard the city. The bombardment lasted from 2–6 September, and saw the deployment of Congreve rockets to bombard Copenhagen. After the bombardment on 6 September Peymann gave up and surrendered the city unconditionally to the British, this decision resulted in that he was sentenced to death, but later pardoned.
The British now captured all the Danish ships that they could take back to England, while they burnt the rest, and took everything of value on the Danish naval base at Holmen. An offer of a British-Danish alliance was also given to Crown Prince Frederick after the attack on Copenhagen, but this was rejected, as France had already set an ultimatum to either join the Continental System, or prepare for war.
In December, the British Navy also
Alliance with France
The British attack on Copenhagen resulted in Denmark-Norway deciding to form an alliance with France, and on 31 October, the French-Danish alliance was signed at Fontainebleau. Denmark-Norway was now officially at war with Britain, which led to the British occupation of all the Danish colonies.[11] At the same time, the British also initiated a blockade of shipping between Denmark and Norway, which led to supply shortages in Norway which were compounded by the suspension of the Pomor trade with Russia.
Since Sweden had been an ally of Britain in the war against France since 1805, and since Russia after the peace treaty with France at
In August, the news about the
State bankruptcy
From 1807 to 1813 the war was characterised by high inflation, with wages increasing several hundred percent and grain prices even more. It was not cheap for Denmark to keep an army operating in Holstein and although in 1810 the Danish government introduced a progressive income tax to cover the deficit, it did not have the administrative machinery needed to get this new system to work but instead tried to make up the deficit by printing more and more banknotes. From 1806 to 1813 the currency's total face value increased sixfold but the notes' real value significantly decreased. Thus the state itself went bankrupt, trying to remedy the situation by rushing through a regulation on 5 January 1813 for a change in the monetary system. The regulation determined that a new foreign bank would replace the old banks and start minting new coins with values fixed against foreign banknotes. This made minor savers, people with their money tied up in government bonds, or people holding higher-value banknotes relatively poor.
References
- ^ Lindqvist, pp. 190-191
- ^ Feldbæk, pp. 98-133
- ^ Oman, Carola. The Battle of Copenhagen. britishbattles.com.
- ^ Pocock, p. 237
- ^ Feldbæk, pp. 150-157
- ^ Feldbæk, pp. 212-225
- ^ Benito & Jensen, p. 203
- ^ Benito & Jensen, pp. 204-205
- ^ Lindeberg, pp. 94-95
- ^ Lindeberg, pp. 110-111
- ^ Benito & Jensen, p. 206
- ^ Sundberg, p. 368
Bibliography
- Bourgois, Eric Lerdrup; Høffding, Niels (2007). Danmark og Napoleon. Hovedland. ISBN 978-87-7070-061-0.
- ISBN 87-567-4001-8.
- Hillingsø, K.G.H. (2007). Landkrigen, 1807. Gyldendal. ISBN 978-87-02-06004-1.
- Lindeberg, Lars (1974). De så det ske : Englandskrigene 1801-14 : Slaget på Reden • Guldalder • Statsbankerot. Lademann. ISBN 87-15-08075-7.
- Lindqvist, Herman (2004). Napoleon. Schibsted forlagene. ISBN 978-82-516-2157-1.
- Pocock, Tom (1987). Horatio Nelson. Pimlico.
- Scocozza, Benito; Jensen, Grethe (1999). Danmarkshistoriens Hvem, Hvad og Hvornår. Politikens Forlag. ISBN 87-567-6094-9.
- Scocozza, Benito (1997). Politikens bog om danske monarker. Politikens Forlag. ISBN 87-567-5772-7.
- Sundberg, Ulf (1998). Svenska krig, 1521-1814. Stockholm: Hjalmarson & Högberg. ISBN 91-89080-14-9.