Foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi government
| ||
---|---|---|
1966–1977 1980–1984
Legislation
Treaties and accords
Missions and projects
Controversies
Riots and attacks
Constitutional amendments
Gallery: Picture, Sound, Video |
||
The foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi government was the foreign policy of India between 1967 and 1977 during the Indira Gandhi premiership. It included a focus on security, by fighting militants abroad and strengthening border defenses. On 30 October 1981 at the meeting organised to mark silver jubilee celebration of the School of International Studies, Gandhi said, "A country’s policy is shaped by many forces- its position on the map, and the countries which are its neighbours, the policies they adopt, and the actions they take, as well as its historical experiences in the aggregate and in terms of its particular success or traumas."[1]
Non-aligned Movement
In the early 1980s under Gandhi, India attempted to reassert its prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement by focusing on the relationship between disarmament and economic development. By appealing to the economic grievances of developing countries, Gandhi and her successors exercised a moderating influence on the Non-aligned movement, diverting it from some of the Cold War issues that marred the controversial 1979 Havana meeting where Cuban leader Fidel Castro attempted to steer the movement towards the Soviet Union.[2] Although hosting the 1983 summit at Delhi boosted Indian prestige within the movement, its close relations with the Soviet Union and its pro-Soviet positions on Afghanistan and Cambodia limited its influence.[citation needed] Gandhi boosted the NAM summit in New Delhi in 1967 to strengthen the unity and co-operation among Afro-Asian countries.
Indo-US
When Indira came to power in 1966, on invitation from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, Gandhi visited the US on 28 March 1966. During her visit, the Indo-US Education Foundation was formulated, but could not materialize due to strong opposition in India. America had suspended aid to India in 1965 at the time of the Indo-Pak war. However, the visit helped India secure more food and development aid from the US. Johnson promised three million tons of food and nine million in aid. Indira resented the US policy of food aid as a tool in forcing India to adopt policies favored by the US. She also resolutely refused to sign the NPT (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons).
Relations with US strained badly under President
The
Indira met then US President Ronald Reagan in 1981 for the first time at the North–South Summit held to discuss global poverty. Gandhi's 1982 visit, at then US President Ronald Reagan’s invitation, turned out to be markedly successful, with agreeing on cooperation in science and technology and signing an agreement on the Tarapur nuclear plant and to mark 1985 as the ‘year of India’ in the US.[5]
Soviet Union
The relationship between India and the Soviet Union deepened during Gandhi's rule. The main reason was the perceived bias of United States and China, the rivals of USSR, towards Pakistan. The support of the Soviets with arms supplies and casting of veto at United Nations helped in winning and consolidating the victory over Pakistan in the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war. Prior to the war Indira signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviets. In the beginning, India was not willing for Indo-Soviet treaty. But circumstances forced India to have a treaty with the Soviet Union in 1971. The circumstances were I. Pindi-Peking -Washington axis was formed by 1971, mainly against the USSR to curb its influence in South Asia and secondarily against India. The refuges from East Pakistan flooded India. So, the responsibility fell on India to protect East Pakistan against the West Pakistan. At this juncture, China and USA came to support Pakistan and at his situation India was forced to have a treaty with the Soviet Union. Had India not concluded a treaty with USSR, its prestige would have been at stake.
The Soviets were not happy with the 1974 nuclear test conducted by India but did not support further action because of the ensuing Cold War with the United States. Indira was not happy with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan but once again calculations involving relations with Pakistan and China kept from criticizing the Soviet Union harshly. The Soviets became the main arms supplier during the Indira years by offering cheap credit and transactions in rupees rather than in dollars. The easy trade deals also applied to non-military goods. Under Indira by the early 1980s the Soviets became the largest trading partner of India.[6]
Pakistan, Bangladesh and South Asia
In early 1971, disputed elections in
India maintained close ties with neighbouring Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) following the Liberation War. Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman recognized Gandhi's contributions to the independence of Bangladesh. However, Mujibur Rahman's pro-India policies antagonised many in Bangladeshi politics and the military, who feared that Bangladesh had become a client state of India.[18][19] The Assassination of Mujibur Rahman in 1975 led to the establishment of Islamist military regimes that sought to distance the country from India.[20] Gandhi's relationship with the military regimes was strained, due to her alleged support of anti-Islamist leftist guerrilla forces in Bangladesh.[20] Generally, however, there was a rapprochement between Gandhi and the Bangladeshi regimes, although issues such as border disputes and the Farakka Dam remained an irritant in bilateral ties.[21] In 2011, the Government of Bangladesh conferred its highest state award posthumously on Gandhi for her "outstanding contribution" to the country's independence.[22]
Gandhi's approach to dealing with Sri Lanka's ethnic problems was initially accommodating. She enjoyed cordial relations with Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. In 1974, India ceded the tiny islet of Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka to save Bandaranaike's socialist government from a political disaster.[23] However, relations soured over Sri Lanka's turn away from socialism under J. R. Jayewardene, whom Gandhi despised as a "western puppet."[24] India under Gandhi was alleged to have supported LTTE militants in the 1980s to put pressure on Jayewardene to abide by Indian interests.[25] Nevertheless, Gandhi rejected demands to invade Sri Lanka in the aftermath of Black July 1983, an anti-Tamil pogrom carried out by Sinhalese mobs.[26] Gandhi made a statement emphasizing that she stood for the territorial integrity of Sri Lanka, although she also stated that India cannot "remain a silent spectator to any injustice done to the Tamil community."[26][27]
India's relationship with Pakistan remained strained following the Shimla Accord in 1972. Gandhi's authorization of the detonation of a nuclear device at Pokhran in 1974 was viewed by Pakistani leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as an attempt to intimidate Pakistan into accepting India's hegemony in the subcontinent. However, in May 1976, Gandhi and Bhutto both agreed to reopen diplomatic establishments and normalize relations.[28] Following the rise to power of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan in 1978, India's relations with its neighbour reached a nadir. Gandhi accused General Zia of supporting Khalistani militants in Punjab.[28] Military hostilities recommenced in 1984 following Gandhi's authorization of Operation Meghdoot.[29] India was victorious in the resulting Siachen conflict against Pakistan.[29]
To keep the Soviet Union and the United States out of South Asia, Mrs Gandhi was instrumental in establishing the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1983[30]
Middle East
Gandhi remained a staunch supporter of Palestinians in the
India's pro-Arab policy had mixed success. Establishment of close ties with the socialist and secular
The 1971 war temporarily became a stumbling block in growing
Asia-Pacific
One of the major developments in Southeast Asia during Gandhi's premiership was the formation of the
On 26 September 1981, Indira was conferred with the Honorary Degree of Doctor at the Laucala Graduation at the University of the South Pacific in Fiji.[37]
Africa
Although independent India was initially viewed as a champion of anti-colonialism, its cordial relationship with the
Foreign and domestic policy successes in the 1970s enabled Gandhi to rebuild India's image in the eyes of African states.[38] Victory over Pakistan and India's possession of nuclear weapons showed the degree of India's progress.[38] Furthermore, the conclusion of the Indo-Soviet treaty in 1971 and threatening gestures by the major western power, the United States, to send its nuclear armed Task Force 74 into the Bay of Bengal at the height of the East Pakistan crisis had enabled India to regain its anti-imperialist image.[38] Gandhi firmly tied Indian anti-imperialist interests in Africa to those of the Soviet Union.[40] Unlike Nehru, she openly and enthusiastically supported liberation struggles in Africa.[40] At the same time, Chinese influence in Africa had declined owing to its incessant quarrels with the Soviet Union.[38] These developments permanently halted India's decline in Africa and helped reestablish its geo-strategic presence.[38]
The Commonwealth
The Commonwealth is voluntary association of mainly former British colonies. India maintained cordial relations with most of the members during Indira Gandhi's time in power. In the 1980s, Indira Gandhi along with Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, Zambia's President Kenneth Kaunda, Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser and Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was regarded as one of the pillars of the commonwealth[41] India under Indira also hosted the 1983 Commonwealth heads of Government summit in New Delhi in 1983. Gandhi used to use the Commonwealth meetings as a forum to put pressure on member countries to cut economic, sports, and cultural ties with Apartheid South Africa[42]
Western Europe
Indira spent a number of years in Europe during her youth and formed many friendships during her stay there. During her premiership she formed friendships with many leaders such as West German chancellor, Willy Brandt[43] and Austrian chancellor Bruno Kreisky.[44] She also enjoyed closed working relationship with many British leaders including conservative premiers, Edward Heath and Margaret Thatcher.[45]
See also
References
- from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ISBN 9780143068266.
- ISBN 9780203880210.
- ^ Opposition, PM and (4 March 2019). "PM and Opposition took India along during 1971 Bangladesh war took India along during 1971 Bangladesh war". Live Mint. HT Media. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ A friendship, India-USA (26 September 2014). "India-USA: A friendship that began way back then". Rediff.com. Rediff. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ISBN 9781850436492.
- ISBN 978-0393321081.
- ISBN 978-0415329194.
- ISBN 978-0393321081.
- ^ Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira, BBC News, 29 June 2005 Archived 12 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News (29 June 2005). Retrieved on 18 June 2011.
- ^ "BBC NEWS | South Asia | Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira". news.bbc.co.uk. 29 June 2005. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ^ "'This woman suckered us', said Nixon of Indira Gandhi". hindustantimes.com. 2 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 July 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ISBN 978-0521414579.
- ISBN 978-0979617485.
- ^ James F. Fisher (1978). Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface. Walter de Gruyter. p. 225.
- ^ Malik 1988, p. 120-121.
- ISBN 978-1897829523.
- ISBN 978-8131304082.
- ^ "Mujib's downfall". Countrystudies.us. 15 August 1975. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ a b "Bangladesh's relations with India". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ISBN 978-8171569120.
- ^ Former PM Indira Gandhi honoured with Bangladesh's highest award, The Economic Times, 25 July 2011 Archived 10 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. The Economic Times (25 July 2011). Retrieved on 25 December 2012.
- ISBN 978-8170622420.
- ^ a b Gupte 2012, p. 5.
- ^ "LTTE: the Indian connection". Sunday Times. 1997. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0415776783.
- ISBN 978-8179911990.
- ^ ISBN 978-8176290593.
- ^ ISBN 978-0804755504.
- ISBN 9780143068266.
- ISBN 978-0415328043.
- ^ ISBN 978-8131710258.
- ^ ISBN 978-8171005642.
- ^ ISBN 978-0804755504.
- ISBN 978-1136818943.
- ^ ISBN 978-8170622970.
- ^ "USP: Honorary Degree of Doctor". usp.ac.fj. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-8131710258.
- ISBN 978-9053560358.
- ^ ISBN 978-1906387655.
- ISBN 9780521314244.
- ^ Danilewitz, J., 1998. Athletics & apartheid. Harvard International Review, 20(4), p.36.
- ISBN 9780262521277.
- ISBN 978-1571811554.
- ISBN 978-0-684-19296-3.
Works cited
- Pranay Gupte (2012). Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi. ISBN 978-0-14-306826-6.
- Yogendra Kumar Malik (1988). India: The Years of Indira Gandhi. ISBN 978-90-04-08681-4.