Sorcery (goetia)
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Goetia (goh-eh-TEE-ah[1]) is a type of European sorcery, often referred to as witchcraft, that has been transmitted through grimoires—books containing instructions for performing magical practices. The term "goetia" finds its origins in the Greek word "goes", which originally denoted diviners, magicians, healers, and seers.[2] Initially, it held a connotation of low magic, implying fraudulent or deceptive mageia as opposed to theurgy, which was regarded as divine magic. Grimoires, also known as "books of spells" or "spellbooks," serve as instructional manuals for various magical endeavors. They cover crafting magical objects, casting spells, performing divination, and summoning supernatural entities like angels, spirits, deities, and demons. Although the term "grimoire" originates from Europe, similar magical texts have been found in diverse cultures across the world.
The history of grimoires can be traced back to ancient
Throughout history, various cultures have contributed to magical practices. Early Christianity saw the use of grimoires by certain
The magical revival of Goetia gained momentum in the 19th century, spearheaded by figures like
History of grimoires
A grimoire (also known as a "book of spells", "magic book", or a "spellbook") is a textbook of magic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects like talismans and amulets, how to perform magical spells, charms, and divination, and how to summon or invoke supernatural entities such as angels, spirits, deities, and demons.[3] While the term grimoire is originally European—and many Europeans throughout history, particularly ceremonial magicians and cunning folk, have used grimoires—the historian Owen Davies has noted that similar books can be found all around the world, ranging from Jamaica to Sumatra.[4] He also noted that in this sense, the world's first grimoires were created in Europe and the ancient Near East.[5]
The earliest known written magical incantations come from ancient
Under the next three centuries of
The
The ancient Jewish people were often viewed as being knowledgeable in magic, which, according to legend, they had learned from Moses, who had learned it in Egypt. Among many ancient writers, Moses was seen as an Egyptian rather than a Jew. Two manuscripts likely dating to the 4th century, both of which purport to be the legendary eighth Book of Moses (the first five being the initial books in the Biblical Old Testament), present him as a polytheist who explained how to conjure gods and subdue demons.[8]
Meanwhile, there is definite evidence of grimoires being used by certain—particularly
Israelite King
The pseudepigraphic Testament of Solomon is one of the oldest magical texts. It is a Greek manuscript attributed to Solomon and was likely written in either Babylonia or Egypt sometime in the first five centuries AD; over 1,000 years after Solomon's death. The work tells of the building of The Temple and relates that construction was hampered by demons until the archangel Michael gave the King a magical ring. The ring, engraved with the Seal of Solomon, had the power to bind demons from doing harm. Solomon used it to lock demons in jars and commanded others to do his bidding, although eventually, according to the Testament, he was tempted into worshiping "false gods", such as Moloch, Baal, and Rapha. Subsequently, after losing favour with God, King Solomon wrote the work as a warning and a guide to the reader.[12]
When Christianity became the dominant faith of the Roman Empire, the early Church frowned upon the propagation of books on magic, connecting it with paganism, and burned books of magic. The New Testament records that after the unsuccessful exorcism by the seven sons of Sceva became known, many converts decided to burn their own magic and pagan books in the city of Ephesus; this advice was adopted on a large scale after the Christian ascent to power.[13]
Magic and goetia in the Greco-Roman world
Greece
The English word magic has its origins in ancient Greece.[14] During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Persian maguš was Graecicized and introduced into the ancient Greek language as μάγος and μαγεία.[15] In doing so it transformed meaning, gaining negative connotations, with the magos being regarded as a charlatan whose ritual practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and dangerous.[15] As noted by Davies, for the ancient Greeks—and subsequently for the ancient Romans—"magic was not distinct from religion but rather an unwelcome, improper expression of it—the religion of the other".[16] The historian Richard Gordon suggested that for the ancient Greeks, being accused of practicing magic was "a form of insult".[17]
Magical operations largely fell into two categories: theurgy (θεουργία) defined as high magic, and goetia (γοητεία) as low magic or witchcraft. Theurgy in some contexts appears simply to glorify the kind of magic that is being practiced – usually a respectable priest-like figure is associated with the ritual.[18] Goetia was a derogatory term connoting low, specious or fraudulent mageia.[19][20][21]
Katadesmoi (Latin: defixiones), curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society, sometimes to protect the entire polis.[22] Communal curses carried out in public declined after the Greek classical period, but private curses remained common throughout antiquity.[23] They were distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and sinister qualities.[24] These qualities, and their perceived deviation from inherently mutable cultural constructs of normality, most clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious rituals of which they form a part.[25]
A large number of
- the use of magic words said to have the power to command spirits;[27]
- the use of mysterious symbols or sigils which are thought to be useful when invoking or evoking spirits.[28]
In the first century BCE, the Greek concept of the magos was adopted into Latin and used by a number of ancient Roman writers as magus and magia.[15] The earliest known Latin use of the term was in Virgil's Eclogue, written around 40 BCE, which makes reference to magicis... sacris (magic rites).[29] The Romans already had other terms for the negative use of supernatural powers, such as veneficus and saga.[29] The Roman use of the term was similar to that of the Greeks, but placed greater emphasis on the judicial application of it.[15]
Roman Empire
In ancient Roman society, magic was associated with societies to the east of the empire; the first century CE writer
Within the Roman Empire, laws would be introduced criminalising things regarded as magic.[31] The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and the Codex Theodosianus (438 AD) states:
If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by custom of the people a magician [...] should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank.[32]
Defixiones and sorcery in Roman Britain
Christopher A. Faraone writes that "In Late Antiquity we can see that a goddess invoked as Hecate Ereshkigal was useful in both protective magic and in curses. [...] she also appears on a number of curse tablets [...]"[34] Robin Melrose writes that "the first clear-cut magic in Britain was the use of curse tablets, which came with the Romans.[35]
Potter and Johns wrote that "Some classical deities, notably Hecate of the underworld, had triple manifestations. In Roman Britain, some fifty dedications to the Mothers are recorded in stone inscriptions and other objects, constituting ample evidence of the importance of the cult among native Celts and others."[36]
In 1979–80, the Bath curse tablets were found at the site of Aquae Sulis (now Bath in England).[37] All but one of the 130 tablets concerned the restitution of stolen goods.[38] Over 80 similar tablets have been discovered in and about the remains of a temple to Mercury nearby, at West Hill, Uley,[39] making south-western Britain one of the major centres for finds of Latin defixiones.
Most of the inscriptions are in colloquial Latin,
There is also a medieval-era
In medieval times, the Roman temple at Bath would be incorporated into the Matter of Britain. The thermal springs at Bath were said to have been dedicated to Minerva by the legendary King Bladud and the temple there endowed with an eternal flame.[48]
In Medieval Europe
Role of the Matter of Britain in the condemnation of goetia
Godfrid Storms argued that
The adoption of Christianity saw some of these pre-Christian mythological creatures reinterpreted as
Witches still go to cross-roads and to heathen burials with their delusive magic and call to the devil; and he comes to them in the likeness of the man that is buried there, as if he arises from death.[56]
Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395) had said that demons had children with women called cambions, which added to the children they had between them, contributed to increase the number of demons. However, the first popular account of such a union and offspring does not occur in Western literature until around 1136, when Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the story of Merlin in his pseudohistorical account of British history, Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), in which he reported that Merlin's father was an incubus.[57]
Anne Lawrence-Mathers writes that at that time "... views on demons and spirits were still relatively flexible. There was still a possibility that the
It was only beginning in the 1150s that the Church turned its attention to defining the possible roles of spirits and demons, especially with respect to their sexuality and in connection with the various forms of magic which were then believed to exist.[57] Christian demonologists eventually came to agree that sexual relationships between demons and humans happen, but they disagreed on why and how.[57] A common point of view is that demons induce men and women to the sin of lust, and adultery is often considered as an associated sin.
Goetia viewed as maleficium, sorcery and witchcraft
Goetia and some (though not all) medieval grimoires became associated with
During the 14th century, sorcerers were feared and respected throughout many societies and used many practices to achieve their goals. "Witches or sorcerers were usually feared as well as respected, and they used a variety of means to attempt to achieve their goals, including incantations (formulas or chants invoking evil spirits), divination and oracles (to predict the future), amulets and charms (to ward off hostile spirits and harmful events), potions or salves, and dolls or other figures (to represent their enemies)".[62]
Medieval Europe saw the Latin legal term maleficium[63] applied to forms of sorcery or witchcraft that were conducted with the intention of causing harm.[64] Early in the 14th century, maleficium was one of the charges leveled against the Knights Templar.[65][66]
Maleficium was defined as "the practice of malevolent magic, derived from casting lots as a means of divining the future in the ancient Mediterranean world",[67] or as "an act of witchcraft performed with the intention of causing damage or injury; the resultant harm."[68] In general, the term applies to any magical act intended to cause harm or death to people or property.[68] Lewis and Russell stated, "Maleficium was a threat not only to individuals but also to public order, for a community wracked by suspicions about witches could split asunder".[62] Those accused of maleficium were punished by being imprisoned or even executed.[69]
Sorcery came to be associated with the Old Testament figure of
One of the most obvious sources for the Ars Goetia is Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum in his De praestigiis daemonum (1577). Weyer relates that his source for this intelligence was a book called Liber officiorum spirituum, seu liber dictus Empto Salomonis, de principibus et regibus demoniorum ("The book of the offices of spirits, or the book called Empto, by Solomon, about the princes and kings of demons").[73] Weyer does not cite, and is unaware of, any other books in the Lemegeton, suggesting that the Lemegeton was derived from his work, not the other way around.[73][74] Additionally, some material came from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's Three Books of Occult Philosophy (1533), and the Heptameron by pseudo-Pietro d'Abano.[a][73][75]
The later Middle Ages saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European languages: sorcière in French, Hexe in German, strega in Italian, and bruja in Spanish.[76] The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlier Old English term wicce.[76] A person that performs sorcery is referred to as a sorcerer or a witch, conceived as someone who tries to reshape the world through the occult. The word witch is over a thousand years old: Old English formed the compound wiccecræft from wicce ('witch') and cræft ('craft').[77] The masculine form was wicca ('male sorcerer').[78] In early modern Scots, the word warlock came to be used as the male equivalent of witch (which can be male or female, but is used predominantly for females).[79][80][81]
Probably the best-known characteristic of a sorcerer or witch is their ability to cast a
During the Renaissance, the many magical practices and rituals of goetia were considered evil or irreligious and by extension, black magic in the broad sense. Witchcraft and non-mainstream esoteric study were prohibited and targeted by the Inquisition.[86]
European witch-hunts and witch-trials
In
The Malleus Maleficarum, (Latin for 'Hammer of The Witches') was a witch-hunting manual written in 1486 by two German monks, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. It was used by both Catholics and Protestants[88] for several hundred years, outlining how to identify a witch, what makes a woman more likely than a man to be a witch, how to put a witch on trial, and how to punish a witch. The book defines a witch as evil and typically female. The book became the handbook for secular courts throughout Renaissance Europe, but was not used by the Inquisition, which even cautioned against relying on the work.[b] In total, tens or hundreds of thousands of people were executed, and others were imprisoned, tortured, banished, and had lands and possessions confiscated. The majority of those accused were women, though in some regions the majority were men.[89][90]
In 1584, the English writer
In 1597,
European witch-trials reached their peak in the early 17th century, after which popular sentiment began to turn against the practice.
Magical revival
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The magical revival of Goetia gained significant momentum in the 19th century with the contributions of figures like
Aleister Crowley, a central figure in 20th-century occultism, continued the magical revival of Goetia. A member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Crowley was deeply influenced by its teachings and rituals. His exploration of Goetia can be seen in his The Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King, which offered his perspective on working with spirits. Crowley's approach blended his interpretation of ceremonial magic, Eastern mysticism, and personal experimentation. He emphasized the magician's willpower and authority in commanding spirits, reflecting his individualistic and transformative magical philosophy.
The magical revival of Goetia has persisted into modern times within the realm of occultism. Contemporary practitioners of ceremonial magic, occult traditions, and
The magical revival of Goetia has sparked discussions about ethics, responsibility, and the boundaries of magical practice. Some practitioners approach Goetia with caution, recognizing the potential risks and consequences of invoking powerful entities. Others emphasize the symbolic and psychological aspects of the practice, focusing on inner transformation rather than literal spirit conjuration. As with any magical tradition, the revival of Goetia showcases the diversity of perspectives within the occult community, reflecting the evolving understanding of magic in the modern world.
See also
- Astral cult
- Black shamanism
- Ceremonial magic
- Chaos magic
- Classification of demons
- Geomancy
- Left-hand path and right-hand path
- Magical formula
- Magical Treatise of Solomon
- Neopagan witchcraft
- Renaissance magic
- Scrying
- Sexuality in Christian demonology
References
Notes
- ^ The latter republished spuriously as a purported Fourth Book of Agrippa.
- ^ Jolly, Raudvere & Peters (2002), p. 241: "In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the Malleus said, even when it presented apparently firm evidence."
Citations
- ^ Pronunciation of Goetia
- ^ a b c Drury & Hume (2013), p. 124.
- ^ Davies (2009), p. 1.
- ^ Davies (2009), pp. 2–5.
- ^ Davies (2009), pp. 6–7.
- ^ Davies (2009), p. 8.
- ^ a b Davies (2009), pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b Davies (2009), p. 10.
- ^ a b Davies (2009), p. 7.
- ^ Graf (2011), p. 133.
- ^ Butler (1979).
- ^ Davies (2009), pp. 12–13.
- ^ Davies (2009), pp. 18–20.
- ^ Bremmer (2002), p. 1.
- ^ a b c d Otto & Stausberg (2013), p. 16.
- ^ Davies (2012), p. 41.
- ^ Gordon (1999), p. 163.
- ^ Luck (1985), p. 51.
- ^ Luck (1985), p. [page needed].
- ^ Luck (1999), pp. 99, 101.
- ^ Gordon (1999), p. 164.
- ^ Kindt (2012), pp. 95–96.
- ^ Hinnells (2009), p. 313.
- ^ Kindt (2012), p. 96.
- ^ Kindt (2012), pp. 102–103.
- ^ Betz (1986), pp. xii–xlv.
- ^ Lewy (1978), p. 439.
- ^ Betz (1986), p. 34.
- ^ a b Gordon (1999), p. 165.
- ^ Davies (2012), pp. 32–33.
- ^ Otto & Stausberg (2013), p. 17.
- ^ Drijvers & Hunt (1999), pp. 208ff.
- ^ Dvorjetski (2007), p. 103.
- ^ Faraone (2021).
- ^ Melrose (2018), p. 240.
- ^ Potter & Johns (1992), p. 161.
- ^ Gordon & Simon (2010), p. 15.
- ^ Flint (1998), pp. 37–38.
- ^ Curse Tablets from Roman Britain, UK: Oxford, retrieved 2006-12-25.
- ^ Adams (2005), p. 68.
- ^ Adams (1992), p. 1.
- ^ Frend (2006), p. 89.
- ^ Tomlin (2011).
- ^ Esks (2006), p. 970.
- ^ Rawlinson (1981), p. 42.
- ^ Sheldon (2003).
- ^ Cavendish (1983), p. 130.
- ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth. Historia Regum Britanniae, II:10.
- ^ Storms (1948), pp. 49–50.
- ^ Storms (1948), pp. 50–51.
- ^ a b Storms (1948), p. 51.
- ^ Storms (1948), pp. 51–52.
- ^ Semple (2003).
- ^ Semple (1998).
- ^ Pope (1968), p. 796.
- ^ Meaney (1984).
- ^ a b c d e Lawrence-Mathers (2020).
- ^ Fulton (2012), p. 98.
- ^ Harper-Bill & Van Houts (2007), pp. 200ff.
- ^ Barber (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Parry & Caldwell (1959), p. 79.
- ^ a b "Witchcraft". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-05-12.
- ^ Napier (2017).
- ^ Bailey (2018), p. 21.
- ^ Campbell (1937).
- ^ Stoyanov (2000).
- ^ "maleficium". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on May 13, 2018. Retrieved 2018-05-12.
- ^ a b Kierner (2015), p. 19.
- ^ Kent (2005).
- ^ Davies (2012), p. 35.
- ^ Peterson (2001), pp. xi–xvii.
- ^ Rudd (2007), p. 399.
- ^ a b c Peterson (2001), pp. xiii-xiv.
- ^ Waite (1913), Part I, Chapter III, section 2.
- ^ Rudd (2007), pp. 31–43.
- ^ a b Bailey (2018), p. 22.
- ^ Harper (n.d.).
- ^ "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". oed.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-18. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
- ^ McNeill (1957), p. [page needed].
- ^ Chambers (1861), p. [page needed].
- ^ Sinclair (1871), p. [page needed].
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, the Compact Edition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. p. 2955.
- ^ Luck (1985), pp. 254, 260, 394.
- ^ Kittredge (1929), p. 172.
- ^ Davies (1999), p. [page needed].
- ^ Zambelli 2007, p. [page needed].
- ^ Mormando (1999), pp. 52–108.
- ^ Campbell (2011), p. 27.
- ^ Gibbons (1998).
- ^ Barstow (1994), p. 23.
- ^ Almond (2009).
- ^ Ryynänen (2010), p. 8.
- ^ Reilly (1956).
- ^ Bath & Newton (2008).
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{{cite book}}
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Further reading
- Aldhouse-green, M. (2018). Sacred Britannia: Gods and Rituals in Roman Britain from Caesar to Constantine. WW Norton. ISBN 978-0500252222.
- Birney, M. (1990). The Cult of Venus in Roman Britain (Thesis). Michigan State University. Department of History of Art.
- Costantini, L. (2019). Magic in Apuleius' Apologia: Understanding the Charges and the Forensic Strategies in Apuleius' Speech. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110616590.
- Crowhurst, D. (2021). Stellas Daemonum: The Orders of the Daemons (Weiser Deluxe Hardcover ed.). Red Wheel Weiser. ISBN 978-1633411647.
- Del Rio, M. A. (2000). Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. (ed.). Investigations Into Magic. Translated by P. G. Maxwell-Stuart. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719049767.
- Dickie, M. W. (2003). Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1134533367.
- Flint, V. I. J. (1991). The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691001104.
- Grant, Kenneth (2010). The Magical Revival. Starfire Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1906073039.
- Harpur, P. (2007). The Philosophers' Secret Fire: A History of the Imagination. Australia: Blue Angel Gallery. ISBN 978-0980286526.
- Hewitt, J. F. (1890). "Notes on the Early History of Northern India". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 22: 697–758. S2CID 163250901.
- Hindley, K. S. (2023). Textual Magic: Charms and Written Amulets in Medieval England. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226825335.
- Holst-Warhaft, G. (2002). Dangerous Voices: Women's Laments and Greek Literature. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1134908080.
- Kieckhefer, R. (2014). Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107431829.
- Lehrich, C. I. (2003). The Language of Demons and Angels: Cornelius Agrippa's Occult Philosophy. Belgium: Brill. ISBN 978-9004135741.
- Leitch, Aaron (2005). Secrets of the Magickal Grimoires: The Classical Texts of Magick Deciphered. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 978-0738703039.
- Lisiewski, J. C. (2011). Howlings from the Pit: A Practical Handbook of Medieval Magic, Goetia and Theurgy. Original Falcon Press. ISBN 978-1935150459.
- Mastros, Sara L. (2024). The Sorcery of Solomon: A Guide to the 44 Planetary Pentacles of the Magician King. Red Wheel/Weiser. ISBN 978-1578637867.
- McKie, S. (2022). Living and Cursing in the Roman West: Curse Tablets and Society. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1350103016.
- Meggitt, Justin J. (2013). "Did Magic Matter? The Saliency of Magic in the Early Roman Empire". Journal of Ancient History. 1 (2): 170–229. .
- Montesano, Marina, ed. (2020). Witchcraft, Demonology and Magic. Switzerland: Mdpi AG. ISBN 978-3039289592.
- Radulović, Nemanja; Hess, Karolina Maria, eds. (2019). Studies on Western Esotericism in Central and Eastern Europe. Hungary: JATE Press. ISBN 978-9633153970.
- Rampton, M. (2021). Trafficking with Demons: Magic, Ritual, and Gender from Late Antiquity to 1000. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1501702686.
- Saunders, C. J. (2010). Magic and the Supernatural in Medieval English Romance. Kiribati: D. S. Brewer. ISBN 978-1843842217.
- Sims-Williams, Patrick (1990). Religion and Literature in Western England, 600-800. Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England 3. Cambridge.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Stratton, Kimberly B.; Kalleres, Dayna S., eds. (2014). Daughters of Hecate: Women and Magic in the Ancient World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199711550.
- Stratton-Kent, Jake (2010). Geosophia: The Argo of Magic: from the Greeks to the Grimoires. Scarlet Imprint/Bibliothèque Rouge. ISBN 978-0956720306.
- Stratton-Kent, Jake (2010). "The" Testament of Cyprian the Mage: Comprehending the Book of Saint Cyprian & His Magical Elements and an Elucidation of the Testament of Solomon. Scarlet Imprint/Bibliothèque Rouge. ISBN 978-0957449251.
- Stratton-Kent, Jake (2010). The Trve Grimoire: Encyclopaedia Goetica. Scarlet Imprint/Bibliothèque Rouge. ISBN 978-0956720320.
- Stratton-Kent, Jake (2015). Goetic Liturgy. Hadean Press Limited. ISBN 978-1907881435.
- Williams, Howard (1865). The Superstitions of Witchcraft. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green – via Project Gutenberg.
- Young, F. (2022). Magic in Merlin's Realm: A History of Occult Politics in Britain. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1316512401.