History of Split

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The city of

Sack of Salona by the Avars and Slavs, the fortified Palace of Diocletian was settled by the Roman refugees. Split became a Byzantine city, to later gradually drift into the sphere of the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Croatia, with the Byzantines retaining nominal suzerainty. For much of the High and Late Middle Ages, Split enjoyed autonomy as a free city, caught in the middle of a struggle between Venice and the King of Hungary for control over the Dalmatian city-states
.

Venice eventually prevailed and during the

Socialist Yugoslavia, as part of its republic of Croatia. In 1991, Croatia seceded from Yugoslavia amid the Croatian War of Independence
.

Antiquity

See also: Salona and Diocletian's Palace
Reconstruction of the Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian in its original appearance upon completion in 305 CE, by Ernest Hébrard

Although the beginnings of Split are traditionally associated with the construction of

Issa (inhabited by Dorian Greeks[1]), the modern-day town of Vis on the island of the same name. Issa, itself a colony of the Sicilian city of Syracuse, had acquired sovereignty and started founding its own colonies in 367 BCE, after the death of Dionysius the Elder.[2] The exact year the city was founded is not known, but it's estimated to have been in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE.[3]

The Greek settlement lived off trade with the surrounding

Illyrian Wars of 229 and 219 BCE. Upon establishing permanent rule, the Romans founded the Province of Dalmatia.[4] The city of Salona
, only a short distance from Spálathos, became the capital of the province and evolved into a significant city in the Roman state. The history of Spálathos becomes obscure for a while at this point, being overshadowed by that of nearby Salona, to which it would later become successor.

The

Roman Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284 to 305 CE) reformed the government in the late Roman Empire and established the Tetrarchy. This new system presupposed that Diocletian himself would retire at some point in favor of Galerius. Thus, in 293 CE, he began the construction of an opulent and heavily fortified palace near his home town of Salona, selecting the site of Spálathos (or Spalatum in Latin). The palace was built directly fronting the sea, so as to allow its occupant to escape by that means if necessary (in an era plagued by civil wars). The site was most likely chosen due to being near to Salona, but also with a secure port and a more immediate access to the open sea in the case of an attack. Following a bout of illness in 303 CE, Diocletian announced he would retire as soon as his Palace, scheduled for completion in 305 CE, was ready.[5][6]

The Palace was built as a massive structure, much like a Roman military fortress. It faces the sea on its south side, with its walls 170 to 200 metres (570 to 700 ft) long, and 15 to 20 metres (50 to 70 ft) high, enclosing an area of 38,000 m2 (9½ acres, or about 5.5

Marjan hill as a recreational area for the residents,[9][page needed] a tradition which persists to this day. The palace was finished on schedule in AD 305. Diocletian accordingly retired, becoming the first Roman Emperor to voluntarily remove himself from office.[10] After Diocletian's death, the palace became state property and was used for various purposes.[11] For a period one part of it seems to have been the site of a textile manufactory where Salonitan women worked.[12]

The Palace was to have one further significant occupant, however:

Roman emperors. The Empire itself is henceforward more commonly referred to in historiography as the Byzantine Empire
. In 493 CE Salona, along with most of Dalmatia, was lost to the
Mundus had quickly overrun Dalmatia and captured Salona. But a large Gothic army arrived to reclaim the province, and though he inflicted a heavy defeat upon them, Mundus himself was mortally wounded. As a result, the Roman army withdrew, and all of Dalmatia, with the exception of Salona, was abandoned to the Goths.[14] Salona was then taken by the Gothic general Gripas. Justinian dispatched a new general, Constantianus, to recover Dalmatia, which he accomplished speedily. Gripas was forced to abandon Salona because of the ruined state of its fortifications and the pro-Roman stance of its citizens. Constantinianus then occupied the city and rebuilt its walls. Seven days later, the Gothic army departed for Italy, so that by late June 536 CE Dalmatia was again in Roman hands.[15][16]

Sack of Salona

The Peristyle of Diocletian's Palace, collotype (1909).

The history of Split as a significant city, in its own right, begins with the

Avar Khaganate, occupied the more fertile land of the Pannonian Basin
).

For the following decade, the Salonitans lived in huts on the islands, suffering from a lack of drinking water (the islands themselves appear to have been mostly deserted by that time). The younger men equipped some light ships and raided Croat settlements on the mainland "so that none of the Slavs dared to go down to the sea".[17] At this point there emerged a leader among the exiles, known only as Severus the Great ("whose house had stood next to the columns of the Palace by the sea"[17]). He persuaded the vast majority of the remaining Salonitans to return to the mainland. They could not return to the ruins of Salona, which were entirely indefensible and closer to the Slavic tribes of the interior, but chose instead to occupy the 300-year-old Palace of Diocletian. They intended to stay in the Palace until such a time as Salona might be reoccupied, but this never became possible. The strong fortifications of the palace, along with its placement directly upon the sea, meant that it could not be effectively besieged by the Slavic tribes of the mainland.[18]

The Salonitans occupied the Palace around the year 650 CE. Their numbers were so reduced by this point that the fortress-like structure, which was not built to serve as a city, was sufficient for their needs. Contrary to their expectations of retaking Salona, the citizens were hard-pressed to maintain themselves even in the Palace. Upon hearing of their return, the Croats destroyed their crops and confined them within the gates. The Emperor Constans II intervened at this point, and granted them an Imperial mandate to establish themselves in the Palace as the City of Spalatum, which imposed upon the Slavs a cessation of further hostilities through diplomatic arrangements.[18] The Empire itself at this time was hard-pressed to defend itself against the Caliphate and the Lombards in Italy, but was at the time in fact allied with the Croatian Slavs against the Avars.

The citizens of Spalatum now purged the

Archbishop of Salona retained his status as metropolitan of all Dalmatia, continuing on to be referred to for centuries by the name of the ruined ancient city.[18] In 1100, the bell tower which became the main symbol of the city was constructed and dedicated to Saint Domnius, by then regarded as the patron saint
of the city.

Byzantine period

Statue of bishop Gregory of Nin, in the Giardin Park

Throughout the following centuries, effectively until the

Duchy of the Croats. In this period, an independent Dalmatian language developed from Latin
, with a distinct local dialect: to its inhabitants, the city became known as Spalatrum or Spalatro.

Dalmatia, or rather the cities, islands, and the immediate coastline, was organized as a Byzantine duchy, administered by the Exarchate of Ravenna. After the final fall of Ravenna to the Lombards in 751, the prefects and fleet fled from Ravenna to the port of Jadera (Zadar), and the Duchy of Dalmatia began to be administered from there. The cities along the coast, however, enjoyed significant privileges and in practice ran their own affairs independently.[19]

In 925, in the hinterland of Spalatro,

Romanus I Lecapenus the title of "proconsul", but this was an honorific with no function attached to it.[19]

Tomislav had his seat at

bishops of Nin (also known as "bishops of the Croats") gained jurisdiction and influence over the Church in Croatian territories, at the expense of the Archbishopric in Spalatro. The Bishopric of Nin, headed by Bishop Gregory
, attempted to institute the "Slavonic" or "Slavic language" as the language of religious service in the Croatian realm. In response to these developments, in 925 a significant synod was held in Split, at which it was decreed that "no one should presume to celebrate the divine mysteries in the Slavonic language, but only in Latin and Greek, and that no one of that tongue should be advanced to the holy orders". Further, the Archbishop of Spalatum was reaffirmed as having jurisdiction over Croatian lands.

Throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, the waters of the Adriatic were the theatre of a naval struggle between the

Venetian Republic, with the Narentines long holding the upper hand and at one point raiding Venice itself. Split was constantly subjected to raids from both the Narentines on the sea, and by the Croats in its immediate hinterland. Therefore, the city offered its allegiance to Venice in exchange for the Doge establishing security. In 998 the Venetian Doge Pietro II Orseolo, led a large naval expedition along the eastern shores of the Adriatic. He arrived in Split and was welcomed by the population, with the city immediately allying itself to him and providing naval assistance. He defeated the Narentines the same year, and the cities of Dalmatia offered to pledge their allegiance to the Doge and his successors. After obtaining permission from Emperor Basil II
in Constantinople, Orseolo proclaimed himself Duke of Dalmatia.

In 1014 the

Alexius I Comnenus conferred once more the title of "Duke of Dalmatia" to the Venetian Doge (his nominal vassal).[21][failed verification] The Venetians had rendered invaluable naval assistance to the Empire in the Byzantine–Norman wars, while the last King of Croatia, Demetrius Zvonimir, had offended the Emperor by seeking investiture from the Pope and not the Patriarch of Constantinople (as was the case with his immediate predecessors). However, it was merely a title since Dalmatian coastal cities remained under control of King Zvonimir.[21][failed verification
]

After the death of Croatian King

succession crisis followed in Croatia, with King Ladislaus I of Hungary interfering in it.[23] Byzantine Emperor Alexius took advantage of this and joined the old Theme of Dalmatia to the Empire.[21][24] In 1096 Emperor Alexius, at the time engaged in the First Crusade, granted the administration of Dalmatia to the Doge of Venice.[24]

Struggle for Dalmatia

Split was now a subject of the Venetian Doge, and was, along with Trogir and Zadar, one of the three (major) cities of Dalmatia. At this time the

Acre, Coloman laid siege to Zadar and took it by assault, whereupon he advanced on Split. The citizens of Split, seeing the appearance of "an army of unknown race" were "disposed to fight", but "finding that the men were Christians and that the King was disposed to deal liberally with them", they surrendered upon guarantee of their ancient privileges. Nearby Trogir (at that time the primary rival of Split), did the same.[18]

The rights granted to the city (and reaffirmed by new charters) were substantial. Split was to pay no tribute, it was to choose its own count and archbishop whom the king would confirm, it preserved its old Roman laws, and appointed its own judge. Dues from trade (which were substantial in the period), were divided between the count, the archbishop, and the king, and no foreigner was to live within the walls of the city against the will of the citizens. These rights were generally upheld by Hungarian kings, but there were inevitable incidents of violation. The new Hungarian Archbishop of Split, Manasses, attempted to take control of the city with the aid of the Hungarian garrison (whose presence was in itself a violation of privilege). Headed by Adriano de Treviso, the Count of Split, the citizens rose up, and, with the help of a contingent from Trogir, massacred the garrison and expelled the Archbishop. Some years later, one Reles, referred to as the Duke of Croatia, attempted to gain control over the city by inducing the citizens to elect him their Count, but the citizens refused "out of detestation of being ruled by a Slav".[17] When Reles ravaged their lands the citizens defeated him in battle and killed him.[18]

King Coloman died in 1116, ten years after his conquest, while the Doge Ordelafo Faliero had in the meantime returned from

Domenico Michele, quickly defeated the Hungarians again and restored Venetian authority by 1118. In 1124, while the Doge was engaged against the Byzantine Empire (now hostile to Venice), Stephen II recovered Split and Trogir without resistance. Upon Michele's return in 1127, however, the Doge yet again expelled the Hungarians from the two cities and utterly destroyed Biograd, the favored seat of the Croatian Kings that the Hungarians were attempting to establish as a rival to the Venetian Zadar.[18]

The cities remained in Venetian hands without contest during the reign of

Archdiocese of Zadar being subject directly to the Holy See).[18]

In that period, however, Split was to see one brief (and final) restoration of Imperial power in Dalmatia. The Byzantine Emperor

Mount Massarus (Mosor) from Croats who occupied them, and was stoned to death by the locals.[18]

During the 20-year Hungarian civil war between King

ducats. Acting on the pretext, the Republic took over in the city by the year 1420.[25]

Venetian period

Overall view of Split in the Early modern period (1764), an engraving by Scottish architect Robert Adam. Marjan hill is visible in the background.
The city's seaward walls in 1764, an engraving by Robert Adam.

By this time the population was largely

Venetian dialects) was also spoken due to Italian notaries, school teachers and merchants.[28] The city's autonomy was greatly reduced: the highest authority was a prince and captain (conte e capitanio), assigned by Venice.[29]

Split eventually developed into a significant port-city, with important trade routes to the

illiteracy rate was extremely high, mostly because Venetian rule showed little interest in educational and medical facilities.[citation needed
]

In 1797 Split was ceded to the Habsburg monarchy by the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending 377 years of Venetian rule in the city.[31]

Napoleonic wars

Split became part of the

Treaty of Pressburg. It was included directly in the French Empire in 1806. The same year, Vincenzo Dandolo was named provveditore generale and general Auguste de Marmont was named military commander of Dalmatia.[32]

In 1809, after a brief war with France, Austria ceded Carinthia, Carniola, Croatia west of the Sava River, Gorizia and Trieste to France. These territories, along with Dalmatia, formed the Illyrian Provinces. During this period, large investments were undertaken in the city, new streets were built and parts of the ancient fortifications were removed.[33][34]

Austria, with help from a British force led by Captain William Hoste, occupied Split in November 1813.[35] Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the city was officially ceded to Austria.[36]

Under Habsburg rule

Marjan hill in the background.
City center and the Riva promenade from the slopes of Marjan in 1910.

The Split region became part of the

Kingdom of Italy
.

The political alliances in Split shifted over time. At first, the Unionists and Autonomists were allied against the

centralism of Vienna
. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they separated. Under Austria, however, Split can generally be said to have stagnated. The great upheavals in Europe in 1848 gained no ground in Split, and the city did not rebel.

Dujam Rendić-Miočević
, a prominent city lawyer, was elected to the post.

As part of Yugoslavia

Kingdom of Yugoslavia

After the end of

a series of incidents between 1918 and 1920
.

Since Rijeka, Trieste and Zadar, the three other large cities on the eastern Adriatic coast, were annexed by Italy, Split became the most important port in the Kingdom. The Lika railway, connecting Split to the rest of the country, was completed in 1925.

The country changed its name to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, and the

Cvetković-Maček agreement, Split became the part of new administrative unit (merging of Sava and Littoral Banovina plus some Croat populated areas), Banovina of Croatia
in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

World War II

Main article: World War II in Yugoslavia
Italian warship in the City Harbour after the annexation into Italy in 1941.
German vehicles in the city streets. The sign reads "Death to fascism – freedom to the people".

In April 1941, following the

Governatorate of Dalmatia hosted 390,000 inhabitants, of which 280,000 Croats, 90,000 Serbs and 5,000 Dalmatian Italians.[39]
Italian rule met heavy opposition from the Croat population as Split became a centre of anti-fascist sentiment in Yugoslavia. The first armed resistance group was organized on 7 May 1941; the 63 member strong 1st Strike Detachment (Prvi udarni odred) served as the basis for future formations, including the 1st Split Partisan Detachment.[40] Between September and October 1941 alone, ten officials of the Italian fascist occupation were assassinated by the citizens.[41] On 12 June 1942, a fascist mob attacked the city's synagogue, and destroyed its library and archive. Worshipers were beaten as they left the synagogue and Jewish-owned shops were targeted the following day.[42] The local football clubs refused to compete in the Italian championship; HNK Hajduk and RNK Split suspended their activities and both joined the Partisans along with their entire staff after the Italian capitulation provided the opportunity. Soon after Hajduk became the official football club of the Partisan movement.

In September 1943, following the capitulation of Italy,

Waffen SS Prinz Eugen. The Italian General Becuzzi handed over to the Partisans 11 soldiers which they considered as "war criminals; the Partisans also executed up to 41 members of the Italian Police forces, later found in mass graves.[43]

A few weeks later, however, the Partisans were forced into retreat as the Wehrmacht placed the city under the authority of the Independent State of Croatia. The Germans decimated the Italian soldiers as traitors, including three Generals (Policardi, Pelligra and Cigala Fulgosi) and 48 officials (Trelj massacre).[44] In this period the last remaining symbols of Italian heritage in Split, including several Venetian Lions of St.Mark, were erased from the town.

In a tragic turn of events, besides being bombed by axis forces, the city was also bombed by the Allies, causing hundreds of deaths. Partisans finally captured the city on 26 October 1944 and instituted it as the provisional capital of Croatia. On 12 February 1945 the Kriegsmarine conducted a daring raid on the Split harbour, damaging the British cruiser Delhi. After the war the remaining members of

Istrian-Dalmatian exodus).[45]

Second Occupation

Federal Yugoslavia

Main articles: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Socialist Republic of Croatia
The Yugoslav-era Coat of arms of Split. Introduced in 1967, it was based on the Medieval rectangular arms, dating at least from the 14th century (and likely much earlier).

After World War II, Split became a part of the

industrialization and investment by the Yugoslav Federal Government.[citation needed
]

The shipbuilding industry was particularly successful and Yugoslavia, with its

Yugoslav Navy (Jugoslavenska ratna mornarica, JRM) and the Army's Coastal Military District (equivalent of a field army). In the period between 1945 and 1990, the city was transformed and expanded, taking up the vast majority of the Split peninsula. In the same period it achieved an as yet unsurpassed GDP and employment level, still above the present day's, growing into a significant Yugoslav city.[citation needed
]

Since independence

Marjan hill
as seen from the Riva Promenade, 2013.

When Croatia declared its independence again in 1991, Split had a large garrison of JNA troops (drafted from all over Yugoslavia), as well as the headquarters and facilities of the Yugoslav War Navy (JRM). This led to a tense months-long stand-off between the JNA and Croatian National Guard and police forces, occasionally flaring up in various incidents. The most tragic such incident occurred on 15 November 1991, when the JRM light frigate Split fired a small number of shells at the city and its surroundings. The damage was insignificant but there were a few casualties. Three general locations were bombarded: the old city center, the city airport and an uninhabited part of the hills above Kaštela, between the airport and Split. JRM Sailors who had refused to attack Croat civilians, most of them Croats themselves, were left in the vessel's brig. The JNA and JRM evacuated all of its facilities in Split during January 1992. The 1990s economic recession soon followed.

In the years following 2000, Split finally gained momentum and started to develop again, with a focus on tourism. From being just a transition centre, Split is now a major Croatian tourist destination. Many new hotels are being built, as well as new apartment and office buildings. Many large development projects are revived, and new infrastructure is being built. An example of the latest large city projects is the Spaladium Arena, built in 2009.

See also

References

  1. ISSN 0473-0992
    .
  2. ^ a b Novak 1957, pp. 13–14.
  3. ^ Novak 1957, p. 18.
  4. ^ John Everett-Heath. "Dalmatia." Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. Oxford University Press. 2005. Encyclopedia.com
  5. ^ Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Modern Library. p. 335.
  6. ^ Novak 1957, p. 30.
  7. ^ Novak 1957, pp. 35–36.
  8. ^ Map, The Megalithic Portal and Megalith. "Diocletian's Palace". The Megalithic Portal.
  9. OCLC 7584841
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  10. ^ "Diocletian's Palace". W3.mrki.info. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  11. ^ Novak 1957, p. 36.
  12. ^ a b John Gardner Wilkinson (1848). "(Spalato)". Dalmatia and Montenegro. London: J. Murray.
  13. ^ J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, § 4, p. 408.
  14. ^ Bury (1923), Vol. II, Ch. XVIII, p. 174
  15. ^ Procopius, De Bello Gothico I.VII
  16. ^ Novak 1957, pp. 26–27.
  17. ^
    Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum [History of the Bishops of Salona and Split] (in Latin). Amsterdam: Johannes Lucius
    (published 1666).
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Thomas Graham Jackson (1887). "Spalato". Dalmatia. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  19. ^
    ISBN 0-472-08149-7
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  20. ^ Split, Encyclopædia Britannica
  21. ^ a b c d Novak 2004a, pp. 48–50.
  22. ^ David Luscombe, Jonathan Riley-Smith: The New Cambridge Medieval History IV, c.1024 – c.1198 part II, p. 272
  23. ^ "WHKMLA : History of Dalmatia, 614-802". www.zum.de.
  24. ^ a b Šišić, p. 153.
  25. ^ "WHKMLA : History of Croatia, 1301–1526". www.zum.de.
  26. ^ Novak 1957, p. 254.
  27. ^ Novak 1957, pp. 254–258.
  28. ^ Novak 1957, pp. 258–259.
  29. ^ Novak 1961, p. 264.
  30. ^ Novak 1961, p. 311.
  31. ^ Novak 1965, p. 8.
  32. ^ Novak 1965, pp. 39–40.
  33. ^ "WHKMLA : History of the Illyrian Provinces, 1797–1815". www.zum.de.
  34. ^ Novak 1965, pp. 47–48.
  35. ^ Novak 1965, pp. 85–86.
  36. ^ Novak 1965, pp. 87–88.
  37. ^ Nikola Anić: Povijest Osmog dalmatinskog korpusa Narodnooslobodilačke vojske Hrvatske : 1943.-1945., p. 12
  38. ISBN 9788820423780
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  39. ^
    ISBN 978-88-6134-780-9
    . Retrieved 22 May 2016.
  40. ^ 1941. - Prva ratna godina [1941. - The first war year]. Udruga antifašističkih boraca i antifašista grada Splita. Retrieved 14 September 2014. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  41. ISBN 0-253-34656-8
  42. ISBN 978-0-8147-9378-7
    .
  43. ^ Franco Paolo
  44. ^ Vita e morte del soldato italiano nella guerra senza fortuna - Ed. Ferni Ginevra 1971 Vol. XII
  45. ISBN 9780230297685
    . Retrieved 16 February 2022.

Sources

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