Siege of Dubrovnik
Siege of Dubrovnik | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Croatian War of Independence | |||||||
Shelling of the Old Town of Dubrovnik | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
SFR Yugoslavia (before April 1992) FR Yugoslavia (after April 1992) Dubrovnik Republic (before May 1992) | Croatia | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Veljko Kadijević Pavle Strugar Miodrag Jokić Vladimir Kovačević Slobodan Milošević Aleksandar Aco Apolonio Momir Bulatović Milo Đukanović Pavle Bulatović |
Nojko Marinović Janko Bobetko (from May 1992) | ||||||
Units involved | |||||||
Yugoslav People's Army (controlled by Serbia) Yugoslav Navy Montenegrin Territorial Force |
Croatian National Guard (October 1991) Croatian Defence Forces (October 1991) Croatian Army (from November 1991) | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
7,000 | 480–1,000 (1991) | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
165 killed | 194 killed | ||||||
82–88 Croatian civilians killed 16,000 Croatian refugees Significant damage of historical parts of Old Dubrovnik from JNA shelling |
The siege of Dubrovnik (
The siege resulted in the deaths of 194 Croatian military personnel, as well as 82–88 Croatian civilians. The JNA suffered 165 fatalities. The entire region was recaptured by the HV in
The operation was part of a plan drawn up by the JNA aimed at securing the Dubrovnik area and then proceeding north-west to link up with the JNA troops in northern
Background
In August 1990,
As the
Dubrovnik is the southernmost major Croatian city. It is located on the Adriatic Sea coast. The walled city centre, known as the Old Town, is a site of historical monuments and heritage buildings largely dating to the Republic of Ragusa; the city has been placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 1991, the Dubrovnik area had a population of approximately 40,000, of whom 82.4% were Croats and 6.8% were Serbs. Croatian territory surrounding the city stretches from the Pelješac peninsula to the west and the Prevlaka peninsula in the east at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the border with Montenegro.[13] This territory is very narrow, especially near Dubrovnik itself,[14] and consists of a 0.5-to-15-kilometre (0.31-to-9.32-mile) wide coastal strip of land.[15]
Prelude
In mid-1991, top JNA commanders—including Yugoslav
In September 1991, the JNA and the leaders of
On 16 September 1991, the JNA mobilized in Montenegro citing the deteriorating situation in Croatia. Despite a radio broadcast appeal by the JNA 2nd
On 23 September, JNA artillery attacked the village of Vitaljina in the eastern part of Konavle and Brgat to the east of Dubrovnik.[19] Two days later, the Yugoslav Navy blockaded maritime routes to the city.[19] On 26 September, the JNA renamed its Eastern Herzegovina Operational Group the 2nd Operational Group and subordinated it directly to the Federal Ministry of Defence and the JNA General Staff.[25] Cokić was appointed the first commanding officer of the 2nd Operational Group but was replaced by General Mile Ružinovski on 5 October following the fall of Cokić's helicopter on 30 September. Strugar replaced Ružinovski on 12 October.[16][26] On 1 October, the day of the start of operations on Dubrovnik, Montenegrin Ministry of the Interior Pavle Bulatovic issued a secret order to the Republic's Special Police Unit to mobilize and assist the JNA in “carrying out combat operations in the conflict of war on the border between the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Croatia.” [27]
Order of battle
The JNA tasked the 2nd Titograd Corps and the 9th Boka Kotorska Military-Maritime Sector (VPS)—both of which were elements of the 2nd Operational Group—with cutting off and capturing the Dubrovnik area. The 2nd Titograd Corps deployed the 1st Nikšić Brigade while the 9th Boka Kotorska VPS employed the 5th and the 472nd Motorized Brigades. The Corps boundary running north-to-south near Dubrovnik was set.
The defences of Dubrovnik were almost non-existent—at the outset of hostilities there were 480 troops in the city area,[34] out of which only 50 had some training.[32] The only regular military unit was a platoon armed with light infantry weapons that was stationed in the Napoleonic era Fort Imperial atop the Srđ Hill overlooking Dubrovnik. The rest of the troops in the area were poorly armed because the Croatian Territorial Defence had been disarmed by the JNA in 1989.[35] Unlike elsewhere in Croatia, there had been no JNA garrisons or storage depots in Dubrovnik since 1972 and thus very few arms and munitions captured during the September Battle of the Barracks were available to defend Dubrovnik.[23] On 26 September 200 rifles and four artillery pieces captured from the JNA on the island of Korčula were sent to reinforce the city.[32] The guns were a mix of 76 mm and 85 mm Soviet World War II-era divisional guns.[36] In addition, an improvised armoured vehicle was supplied to the city.[37] Dubrovnik also received additional HV, Croatian Police and Croatian Defence Forces troops from other parts of Croatia.[38][39] This brought the number of Croatian troops in Dubrovnik to 600. By November, about 1,000 Croatian troops were defending the city.[40] On 19 September, Marinović was appointed commanding officer of the defences in Dubrovnik,[36] at which time he assessed them as inadequate.[41] The troops, initially organized as the Territorial Defence of Dubrovnik,[36] were reorganized into the HV 75th Independent Battalion on 28 December 1991 and were later reinforced with elements of the 116th Infantry Brigade to form the 163rd Infantry Brigade on 13 February 1992.[42] The Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik, a volunteer military unit of the Croatian Navy consisting of 23 vessels of various sizes and 117 volunteers, was established on 23 September to counter the Yugoslav Navy blockade.[43][44]
Timeline
JNA advance
On 1 October, the JNA started its offensive towards Dubrovnik, moving the 2nd Titograd Corps west through the
Over the next three days, the JNA made slow progress. Its artillery attacked Srđ Hill, the Fort Imperial and Žarkovica on 2 October. The next day, the JNA shelled Dubrovnik's Belvedere Hotel, where a ZNG defence post was located, and the Yugoslav Air Force bombarded the city's Argentina Hotel.[48] On 4 October, the JNA 2nd Corps captured Slano in Dubrovačko Primorje, interdicting the Adriatic Highway there and isolating Dubrovnik from the rest of Croatia.[47] On 5 October, the Ploče district of Dubrovnik was shelled, followed by a Yugoslav Air Force strike on the Fort Imperial the next day.[52]
On 15 October, Croatia offered peace talks to Montenegro, but the
On 23 October, the JNA started a sustained artillery bombardment of Dubrovnik, including the Old Town within the city walls,
Defence of Dubrovnik
The JNA continued its artillery strikes against Dubrovnik on 30 October and the bombardment continued until 4 November, targeting the western areas of Dubrovnik—
JNA artillery and the Yugoslav Navy resumed the bombardment of Dubrovnik between 9 and 12 November, targeting the Old Town, Gruž, Lapad and Ploče, as well as the Belvedere, Excelsior, Babin Kuk, Tirena, Imperial and Argentina hotels.
In November, Dubrovnik began receiving the largest deliveries of
On 2–3 December, the JNA resumed infantry weapons fire against the Old Town, followed by
All of the Croatian defences were 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 miles) away from the Old Town, except for Fort Imperial about 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the north.
Croatian counterattack
On 7 December 1991, another ceasefire was agreed and the JNA force besieging Dubrovnik became largely inactive.
The capabilities of the HV increased dramatically in the first few months of 1992 because it acquired large stockpiles of JNA's weapons in the Battle of the Barracks.
In April 1992, the JNA began offensive operations against the HV and the HVO in areas of western and southern Herzegovina near Kupres and Stolac. The 4th Military District of the JNA, commanded by Strugar, aimed to capture Stolac and most of the eastern bank of the Neretva River south of Mostar.[88] The fighting around Mostar and JNA artillery attacks on the city started on 6 April.[89] The JNA pushed the HV/HVO force from Stolac on 11 April and Čapljina came under JNA fire.[90] A ceasefire was arranged on 7 May but the JNA and the Bosnian Serb forces resumed the attack the next day.[90] The attack succeeded in capturing a large part of Mostar and some territory on the western bank of the Neretva River.[88] On 12 May, the JNA forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the VRS, and the JNA 2nd Operational Group was renamed as the 4th VRS Herzegovina Corps.[91][92] Croatia saw the JNA moves as a prelude to attacks on southern Croatia specifically aimed at the Port of Ploče and possibly Split.[93] To counter the threat, the HV appointed General Janko Bobetko to command the Southern Front, encompassing the Herzegovina and Dubrovnik areas. Bobetko reorganized the HVO command structure and assumed command of the HVO in the region and newly deployed HV units, the 1st Guards and the 4th Guards Brigades.[83][94]
The VRS and JNA attacked north of Ston on 11 April, pushing back elements of the HV 115th Infantry Brigade and elements of the arriving HV Guards Brigades for only modest territorial gain. The frontline stabilized by 23 April and the HV counterattacked and reclaimed some ground after 27 April. On 17 May, Bobetko ordered a major attack of the two full guards brigades. The 1st Guards Brigade was tasked with advancing to link up with the Ston Company guarding access to the Pelješac Peninsula and advance to Slano. The 4th Guards Brigade was ordered to secure the hinterland of the Dubrovačko Primorje by advancing along the rim of the Popovo field. At the same time, the JNA was pressured by the international community to pull back east of Dubrovnik to Konavle.[95]
The 1st Guards Brigade, supported by elements of the 115th Infantry Brigade, captured Čepikuće on 21 May and Slano on 22–23 May. The Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik landed troops in Slano the previous night, but they were repulsed by the JNA.[96] On the night of 23–24 May, the JNA attacked Sustjepan and the northern outskirts of Dubrovnik. On 26 May, the JNA started to pull out of Mokošica and Žarkovica.[97] The 163rd Infantry Brigade advanced from Dubrovnik; its 1st Battalion took positions in Brgat and Župa Dubrovačka, and the 2nd Battalion deployed to Osojnik.[95] On 29 May, the 4th Guards Brigade recaptured Ravno.[98] On 31 May, the 2nd Battalion of the 163rd Brigade pushed the JNA to the Golubov Kamen massif overlooking the Adriatic Highway section tracing around the Rijeka Dubrovačka embayment, but failed to capture the massif. The brigade was relieved by the 145th Infantry Brigade on 15 June. Dubrovnik was targeted by the JNA artillery continuously until 16 June, and then intermittently until 30 June.[97] On 7 June, the 1st Guards and the 4th Guards Brigades ceased their advance in Dubrovačko Primorje in the vicinity of Orahov Do, a village to the north of Slano.[96]
Aftermath
Regardless of its military outcome, the siege of Dubrovnik is primarily remembered for the large-scale looting by JNA troops and the artillery bombardment of Dubrovnik, especially its Old Town. The reaction of the international media and media coverage of the siege reinforced an opinion, already taking shape since the
Between October and December 1991, the JNA captured approximately 1,200 square kilometres (460 square miles) of territory around Dubrovnik—all of which the HV recaptured in its May 1992 counterattack as the JNA pulled back east of Dubrovnik, and in subsequent HV offensives—
11,425 buildings in the region sustained damage; 886 were totally destroyed and 1,675 sustained damage.
Following attempts to justify the JNA offensive, authorities in Serbia and Montenegro tried to deny damage to the Old Town. Radio Television of Serbia said that smoke rising from the Old Town was the result of automobile tyres set on fire by the population of Dubrovnik,[119] echoing Kadijević.[120] Officials and media in Montenegro referred to the offensive as the "war for peace",[121] or a blockade—applying the term to land operations and the naval blockade.[122] According to a 2010 survey of public opinion in Serbia, 40 percent of those polled did not know who bombarded Dubrovnik, while 14 percent believed that no shelling occurred.[123] In a June 2000 meeting with Croatian President Mesić, the President of Montenegro Milo Đukanović apologized to Croatia for the attack.[124] The gesture was welcomed in Croatia,[125] but it was condemned by Đukanović's political opponents in Montenegro and by authorities in Serbia.[126]
In 2007, Montenegrin filmmaker
All armies in the past did their best and refused to wage war or to target and to bomb the city of Dubrovnik. It was simply impossible for anyone to attack and demolish Dubrovnik. In the 1800s, Dubrovnik was captured by Napoleon, but without a fight. The Russian fleet of Admiral Senyavin came to attack Dubrovnik but they lowered their guns and gave up on the attack. There was not a single shell or bullet fired at Dubrovnik. That's Dubrovnik's history, and that indicates the level of the human civilisation, the level of respect afforded to Dubrovnik. What we did is the greatest shame that was done in 1991.[132]
Nikola Samardžić, former Montenegrin foreign minister, during Strugar's trial at the ICTY.
War crime charges
Prosecutors of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), set up in 1993 and based on UN Security Council Resolution 827,[133] indicted Milošević, Strugar, Jokić, the JNA 9th VPS chief of staff Captain Milan Zec and the commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion of the JNA 472nd Motorized Brigade Captain 1st Class Vladimir Kovačević. The charges included allegations that the offensive against Dubrovnik aimed to detach the area from Croatia and annex it to Serbia or Montenegro.[134][135] Jokić said that the offensive only aimed to blockade Dubrovnik,[136] but that claim was later refuted by Cokić.[16] Mihailo Crnobrnja, a former Yugoslav ambassador to the European Union, speculated that the siege was intended to force an end to blockades of JNA barracks in Croatia and to claim the Prevlaka Peninsula for Montenegro.[137]
The
In 2008, authorities in Montenegro charged six former JNA soldiers with prisoner abuse committed in Morinj in 1991 and 1992.[146] Four of the six were convicted of war crimes in July 2013. Ivo Menzalin was given a four-year sentence, Špiro Lučić and Boro Gligić were sentenced to three years while Ivo Gonjić was sentenced to two. The four appealed the decision, and in April 2014, the Montenegrin Supreme Court rejected their appeal.[147] A number of former prisoners of the Morinj camp sued Montenegro and were paid compensation.[148]
In October 2008, Croatia indicted Božidar Vučurević—the mayor of Trebinje and Bosnian Serb leader in eastern Herzegovina at the time of the offensive—for attacks against the civilian population of Dubrovnik.[149][150] Jokić confirmed that he received orders from both Strugar and Vučurević.[151] On 4 April 2011, Vučurević was arrested in Serbia and Croatia requested his extradition. He was released on bail on 17 June.[150] In September, the extradition request was approved but Vučurević left Serbia and returned to Trebinje, avoiding extradition.[149] In 2009, Croatian authorities filed charges against ten JNA officers, including Cokić, Ružinovski, Strugar, Jokić, Zec and Kovačević. They were charged with war crimes committed in the area of Dubrovnik prior to or after 6 December 1991, which were not covered by the ICTY indictments. The charges were made after the ICTY supplied documents collected during its investigation.[16] In 2012, Croatia indicted the commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion of the JNA 5th Motorized Brigade and charged him with arson for burning 90 houses, businesses and public buildings in Čilipi from 5 to 7 October 1991.[152]
The siege of Dubrovnik was also a subject in Croatia's genocide case against Serbia, before the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Croatia claimed 123 civilians from Dubrovnik were killed during the siege. Croatia presented letters from the Croatian police to support these claims, however, in its 2015 judgment the Court noted that all these letters were prepared much later, specifically for the case, were unsigned, and failed to indicate the circumstances under which the 123 were supposedly killed. The Court noted that other documents prepared by the Dubrovnik Police Department, "although drawn up at the time of the events and not solely for the purposes of this case, they have not been corroborated by evidence from an independent source and appear only to refer to two deaths".[153] Citing the Strugar and Jokić ICTY judgments on Dubrovnik, the ICJ in its own judgment recognized that at least two civilian deaths were caused by the unlawful shelling of Dubrovnik on 6 December and one further on 5 October 1991. The judgement stated that the Court "concludes from the foregoing that it has been established that some killings were perpetrated by the JNA against the Croats of Dubrovnik between October and December 1991, although not on the scale alleged by Croatia".[153]
Footnotes
- ^ The New York Times & 19 August 1990
- ^ ICTY & 12 June 2007
- ^ The New York Times & 2 April 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 3 March 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 26 June 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 29 June 1991
- ^ Narodne novine & 8 October 1991
- ^ Department of State & 31 January 1994
- ^ ECOSOC & 17 November 1993, Section J, points 147 & 150
- ^ Hawkesworth & Kogan 1999, pp. 272–278
- ^ The Independent & 10 October 1992
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section III
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 58
- ^ Lupis, Koncul & Sjekavica 2012, p. 222
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section II/A
- ^ a b c d Monitor & 7 May 2010
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 61
- ^ Pavlović 2005, pp. 66–67
- ^ a b c d Pavlović 2005, p. 60
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 501
- ^ Pavlović 2005, pp. 61–62
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 61
- ^ a b c Pavlović 2005, p. 67
- ^ a b c CIA 2002, p. 103
- ^ Marijan 2012, p. 268
- ^ Dubrovački list & 30 November 2011
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 64
- ^ CIA 2002, Map 7
- ^ Pavlović 2005, Note 40
- ^ a b c Pavlović 2005, p. 63
- ^ Armatta 2010, pp. 184–185
- ^ a b c Armatta 2010, p. 182
- ^ IWPR & 30 January 2003
- ^ Dubrovački list & 20 November 2011
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section IV/B
- ^ a b c Dubrovački list & 23 November 2011
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 29 May 2009
- ^ Dubrovački vjesnik & 15 January 2010
- ^ Dubrovački list & 21 December 2011
- ^ The New York Times & 9 November 1991
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 185
- ^ Dubrovački list & 8 February 2012
- ^ Hrvatski vojnik & 26 September 1996
- ^ HRT & 23 September 2011
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 416
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 103–104
- ^ a b Marijan 2012, p. 270
- ^ a b c d Pavlović 2005, p. 68
- ^ Dubrovački vjesnik & 30 September 2012
- ^ a b c Pavlović 2005, p. 70
- ^ a b UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VI/B
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VI/C
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 66
- ^ Pavlović 2005, pp. 64–65
- ^ Pavlović 2005, p. 65
- ^ a b Pavlović 2005, p. 71
- ^ a b Ramet 2006, p. 409
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 182
- ^ Dubrovački list & 26 October 2011
- ^ a b c d e Pavlović 2005, p. 69
- ^ a b c d CIA 2002, p. 104
- ^ Stewart 2006, p. 297
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 6 July 1999
- ^ Hooker 1997, p. 9
- ^ American Maritime Cases 1994
- ^ a b UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VI/D
- ^ Novi list & 6 December 2011
- ^ Dubrovački list & 4 January 2012
- ^ Zabkar 1995, p. 75
- ^ Mesić 2004, pp. 389–390
- ^ Dubrovački vjesnik & 25 October 2009
- ^ Los Angeles Times & 31 October 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 15 November 1991
- ^ a b c d UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VI/E
- ^ a b UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VII/C
- ^ Dubrovački list & 11 January 2012
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 6 December 2001
- ^ a b UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VI/F
- ^ a b The New York Times & 3 January 1992
- ^ Los Angeles Times & 29 January 1992
- ^ Thompson 2012, p. 417
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 158
- ^ a b Dubrovački list & 7 March 2012
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 109
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 382
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 428
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 427
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 154
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 155–156
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 156
- ^ Delpla, Bougarel & Fournel 2012, p. xv
- ^ Thomas, Mikulan & Pavlović 2006, p. 54
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 154–155
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 155
- ^ a b Dubrovački list & 30 March 2012
- ^ a b Dubrovački list & 11 April 2012
- ^ a b Dubrovački list & 2 May 2012
- ^ Dubrovački list & 1 April 2012
- ^ Blaskovich 1997, p. 33
- ^ Forrest 2012, p. 393.
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 110
- ^ Lucarelli 2000, pp. 125–129
- ^ Dubrovački list & 3 October 2012
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 157–158
- ^ Al Jazeera & 6 December 2011
- ^ Jutarnji list & 6 December 2011
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 1 October 2012
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 620
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, pp. 549–550
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 553
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 552
- ^ Jutarnji list & 7 December 2010
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VIII/B
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section VIII/C
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section IX/A
- ^ UNSC & 28 December 1994, Section IX/C
- ^ CIA 2002, Note II/53
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 6 March 2004
- ^ The New York Times & 10 August 1997
- ^ Armatta 2010, p. 186
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 402
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 640
- ^ Novi list & 28 May 2011
- ^ BBC News & 25 June 2000
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 616
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 564
- ^ Pavlović 2005, Note 4
- ^ Index.hr & 30 May 2007
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 10 March 2011
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 518
- ^ Novi list & 19 January 2012
- ^ ICTY & 23 January 2004, p. 1145
- ^ Schabas 2006, pp. 3–4
- ^ ICTY & 23 October 2002, pp. 2–3
- ^ ICTY & 2 October 2001
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 512
- ^ Crnobrnja 1996, p. 172
- ^ ICTY & IT-02-54, p. 1
- ^ ICTY & IT-01-42, p. 1
- ^ ICTY & IT-01-42/1, p. 1
- ^ ICTY & IT-01-42, p. 2
- ^ B92 & 15 March 2004
- ^ Nova TV & 18 August 2007
- ^ Blic & 25 May 2012
- ^ ICTY & IT-01-42/2, pp. 1–2
- ^ Deutsche Welle & 18 August 2008
- ^ Balkan Insight & 25 April 2014.
- ^ Dan & 30 October 2012
- ^ a b Nacional & 11 September 2011
- ^ a b B92 & 4 April 2011
- ^ Helsinki Committee 2006, p. 504
- ^ B92 & 6 December 2012
- ^ a b International Court of Justice 2015, p. 98, 99.
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42°38′29″N 18°06′31″E / 42.64139°N 18.10861°E