History of computer animation
The history of
The earliest pioneers: 1940s to mid-1960s
John Whitney
The first digital image
One of the first programmable digital computers was
- From the late 1950s and early 1960s, mainframe digital computers were becoming commonplace within large organisations and universities, and increasingly these would be equipped with graphic plotting and graphics screen devices. Consequently, a new field of experimentation began to open up.
The first computer-drawn film
In 1960, a 49-second vector animation of a car traveling down a planned highway was created at the Swedish
Bell Labs
Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, was a leading research contributor in computer graphics, computer animation and electronic music from its beginnings in the early 1960s. Initially, researchers were interested in what the computer could be made to do, but the results of the visual work produced by the computer during this period established people like Edward Zajac, Michael Noll and Ken Knowlton as pioneering computer artists.
Edward Zajac produced one of the first computer generated films at Bell Labs in 1963, titled A Two Gyro Gravity Gradient attitude control System, which demonstrated that a satellite could be stabilized to always have a side facing the Earth as it orbited.[9]
In 1965, Michael Noll created computer-generated stereographic 3-D movies, including a ballet of stick figures moving on a stage.[11] Some movies also showed four-dimensional hyper-objects projected to three dimensions.[12] Around 1967, Noll used the 4-D animation technique to produce computer-animated title sequences for the commercial film short Incredible Machine (produced by Bell Labs) and the TV special The Unexplained (produced by Walt DeFaria).[13] Many projects in other fields were also undertaken at this time.
Boeing-Wichita
In the 1960s, William Fetter was a graphic designer for Boeing at Wichita, and was credited with coining the phrase "Computer Graphics" to describe what he was doing at Boeing at the time (though Fetter himself credited this to colleague Verne Hudson).[14] [15] Fetter's work included the 1964 development of ergonomic descriptions of the human body that are both accurate and adaptable to different environments, and this resulted in the first 3-D animated wire-frame figures.[16][17] Such human figures became one of the most iconic images of the early history of computer graphics, and often were referred to as the "Boeing Man". Fetter died in 2002.
Ivan Sutherland
Mid-1960s to mid-1970s
The University of Utah
Utah was a major center for computer animation in this period. The computer science faculty was founded by David Evans in 1965, and many of the basic techniques of 3-D computer graphics were developed here in the early 1970s with ARPA funding (Advanced Research Projects Agency). Research results included Gouraud, Phong, and Blinn shading, texture mapping, hidden surface algorithms, curved surface subdivision, real-time line-drawing and raster image display hardware, and early virtual reality work.[19] In the words of Robert Rivlin in his 1986 book The Algorithmic Image: Graphic Visions of the Computer Age, "almost every influential person in the modern computer-graphics community either passed through the University of Utah or came into contact with it in some way".[20]
Evans and Sutherland
In 1968, Ivan Sutherland teamed up with David Evans to found the company
First computer-animated character, Nikolai Konstantinov
In 1968, a group of Soviet physicists and mathematicians with N. Konstantinov as its head created a mathematical model for the motion of a cat. On a
Ohio State
Charles Csuri, an artist at The Ohio State University (OSU), started experimenting with the application of computer graphics to art in 1963. His efforts resulted in a prominent CGI research laboratory that received funding from the National Science Foundation and other government and private agencies. The work at OSU revolved around animation languages, complex modeling environments, user-centric interfaces, human and creature motion descriptions, and other areas of interest to the discipline.[24][25][26]
Cybernetic Serendipity
In July 1968, the arts journal Studio International published a special issue titled Cybernetic Serendipity – The Computer and the Arts, which catalogued a comprehensive collection of items and examples of work being done in the field of computer art in organisations all over the world, and shown in exhibitions in London, UK, San Francisco, CA. and Washington, DC.[27][28] This marked a milestone in the development of the medium, and was considered by many to be of widespread influence and inspiration. Apart from all the examples mentioned above, two other particularly well known iconic images from this include Chaos to Order[29] by Charles Csuri (often referred to as the Hummingbird), created at Ohio State University in 1967,[30] and Running Cola is Africa[31] by Masao Komura and Koji Fujino created at the Computer Technique Group, Japan, also in 1967.[32]
Scanimate
The first machine to achieve widespread public attention in the media was Scanimate, an analog computer animation system designed and built by Lee Harrison of the Computer Image Corporation in Denver. From around 1969 onward, Scanimate systems were used to produce much of the video-based animation seen on television in commercials, show titles, and other graphics. It could create animations in real time, a great advantage over digital systems at the time.[33]
National Film Board of Canada
The
Atlas Computer Laboratory and Antics
The Atlas Computer Laboratory near Oxford was for many years a major facility for computer animation in Britain.[36] The first entertainment cartoon made was The Flexipede, by Tony Pritchett, which was first shown publicly at the Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition in 1968.[37] Artist Colin Emmett and animator Alan Kitching first developed solid filled colour rendering in 1972, notably for the title animation for the BBC's The Burke Special TV program.
In 1973, Kitching went on to develop a software called "Antics", which allowed users to create animation without needing any programming.[38][39] The package was broadly based on conventional "cel" (celluloid) techniques, but with a wide range of tools including camera and graphics effects, interpolation ("inbetweening"/"morphing"), use of skeleton figures and grid overlays. Any number of drawings or cels could be animated at once by "choreographing" them in limitless ways using various types of "movements". At the time, only black & white plotter output was available, but Antics was able to produce full-color output by using the Technicolor Three-strip Process. Hence the name Antics was coined as an acronym for ANimated Technicolor-Image Computer System.[40] Antics was used for many animation works, including the first complete documentary movie Finite Elements, made for the Atlas Lab itself in 1975.[41]
- From around the early 1970s, much of the emphasis in computer animation development was towards ever increasing realism in 3-D imagery, and on visual effects designed for use in feature movies.
First digital animation in a feature film
The first feature film to use
SIGGRAPH
Sam Matsa whose background in graphics started with the APT project at MIT with Doug Ross and Andy Van Dam petitioned Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) to form SIGGRAPH (Special Interest Committee on Computer Graphics), the forerunner of ACM SIGGRAPH in 1967.[44] In 1974, the first SIGGRAPH conference on computer graphics opened. This annual conference soon became the dominant venue for presenting innovations in the field.[45][46]
Towards 3-D: mid-1970s into the 1980s
Early 3-D animation in the cinema
The first use of 3-D wireframe imagery in mainstream cinema was in the sequel to Westworld,
The
Nelson Max
Although
NYIT
In 1974, Alex Schure, a wealthy New York entrepreneur, established the Computer Graphics Laboratory (CGL) at the
The quality of NYIT's work attracted the attention of George Lucas, who was interested in developing a CGI visual effects facility at his company Lucasfilm. In 1979, he recruited the top talent from NYIT, including Catmull, Smith and Guggenheim to start his division, which later spun off as Pixar, founded in 1986 with funding by Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs.
Framebuffer
The
The development of
The first commercial framebuffer was produced in 1974 by
In 1975, the UK company Quantel, founded in 1973 by Peter Michael,[62] produced the first commercial full-color broadcast framebuffer, the Quantel DFS 3000. It was first used in TV coverage of the 1976 Montreal Olympics to generate a picture-in-picture inset of the Olympic flaming torch while the rest of the picture featured the runner entering the stadium. Framebuffer technology provided the cornerstone for the future development of digital television products.[63]
By the late 1970s, it became possible for personal computers (such as the Apple II) to contain low-color framebuffers. However, it was not until the 1980s that a real revolution in the field was seen, and framebuffers capable of holding a standard video image were incorporated into standalone workstations. By the 1990s, framebuffers eventually became the standard for all personal computers.
Fractals
At this time, a major step forward to the goal of increased realism in 3-D animation came with the development of "
In 1979–80, the first film using fractals to generate the graphics was made by
JPL and Jim Blinn
Bob Holzman of
Later in the 1980s, Blinn developed CGI animations for an Annenberg/CPB TV series, The Mechanical Universe, which consisted of over 500 scenes for 52 half-hour programs describing physics and mathematics concepts for college students. This he followed with production of another series devoted to mathematical concepts, called Project Mathematics!.[70]
Motion control photography
3-D computer graphics software
The 1980s
- The '80s saw a great expansion of radical new developments in commercial hardware, especially the incorporation of framebuffer technologies into graphic workstations, allied with continuing advances in computer power and affordability.
Silicon Graphics, Inc (SGI)
SGI's first product (1984) was the IRIS (Integrated Raster Imaging System). It used the 8 MHz M68000 processor with up to 2 MB memory, a custom 1024×1024 frame buffer, and the Geometry Engine to give the workstation its impressive image generation power. Its initial market was 3D graphics display terminals, but SGI's products, strategies and market positions evolved significantly over time, and for many years were a favoured choice for CGI companies in film, TV, and other fields.[76]
Quantel
In 1981, Quantel released the "Paintbox", the first broadcast-quality turnkey system designed for creation and composition of television video and graphics. Its design emphasized the studio workflow efficiency required for live news production. Essentially, it was a framebuffer packaged with innovative user software, and it rapidly found applications in news, weather, station promos, commercials, and the like. Although it was essentially a design tool for still images, it was also sometimes used for frame-by-frame animations. Following its initial launch, it revolutionised the production of television graphics, and some Paintboxes are still in use today due to their image quality, and versatility.[77]
This was followed in 1982 by the
Osaka University
In 1982, Japan's
3-D Fictional Animated Films at the University of Montreal
In the '80s,
In 1983, Philippe Bergeron,
'83 Film Show.In 1985, Pierre Lachapelle, Philippe Bergeron, Pierre Robidoux and
In 1987, the Engineering Institute of Canada celebrated its 100th anniversary. A major event, sponsored by Bell Canada and Northern Telecom (now Nortel), was planned for the Place des Arts in Montreal. For this event, Nadia Magnenat Thalmann and Daniel Thalmann simulated Marilyn Monroe and Humphrey Bogart meeting in a café in the old town section of Montreal. The short movie, called Rendez-vous in Montreal[85] was shown in numerous festivals and TV channels all over the world.
Sun Microsystems, Inc
The
National Film Board of Canada
The NFB's French-language animation studio founded its Centre d'animatique in 1980, at a cost of $1 million CAD, with a team of six computer graphics specialists. The unit was initially tasked with creating stereoscopic CGI sequences for the NFB's 3-D IMAX film Transitions for Expo 86. Staff at the Centre d'animatique included Daniel Langlois, who left in 1986 to form Softimage.[89][90]
First turnkey broadcast animation system
Also in 1982, the first complete turnkey system designed specifically for creating broadcast-standard animation was produced by the Japanese company Nippon Univac Kaisha ("NUK", later merged with
First solid 3-D CGI in the movies
The first cinema feature movie to make extensive use of solid 3-D
In 1984,
Inbetweening and morphing
The terms
), but these were still entirely vector-based.The term "morphing" did not become current until the late '80s, when it specifically applied to computer inbetweening with photographic images—for example, to make one face transform smoothly into another. The technique uses grids (or "meshes") overlaid on the images, to delineate the shape of key features (eyes, nose, mouth, etc.). Morphing then inbetweens one mesh to the next, and uses the resulting mesh to distort the image and simultaneously
The first cinema movie to use morphing was Ron Howard's 1988 fantasy film Willow, where the main character, Willow, uses a magic wand to transform animal to animal to animal and finally, to a sorceress.
3-D inbetweening
With 3-D CGI, the inbetweening of photo-realistic computer models can also produce results similar to morphing, though technically, it is an entirely different process (but is nevertheless often also referred to as "morphing"). An early example is Nelson Max's 1977 film Turning a sphere inside out.[50] The first cinema feature film to use this technique was the 1986 Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, directed by Leonard Nimoy, with visual effects by George Lucas's company Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). The movie includes a dream sequence where the crew travel back in time, and images of their faces transform into one another. To create it, ILM employed a new 3D scanning technology developed by Cyberware to digitize the cast members' heads, and used the resulting data for the computer models. Because each head model had the same number of key points, transforming one character into another was a relatively simple inbetweening.[104]
The Abyss
In 1989 James Cameron's underwater action movie The Abyss was released. This was one of the first cinema movies to include photo-realistic CGI integrated seamlessly into live-action scenes. A five-minute sequence featuring an animated tentacle or "pseudopod" was created by ILM, who designed a program to produce surface waves of differing sizes and kinetic properties for the pseudopod, including reflection, refraction and a morphing sequence. Although short, this successful blend of CGI and live-action is widely considered a milestone in setting the direction for further future development in the field.[105]
Walt Disney and CAPS
The late 1980s saw another milestone in computer animation, this time in 2-D: the development of
3-D animation software in the 1980s
The 1980s saw the appearance of many notable new commercial software products:
- 1982: Autodesk Inc was founded in California by John Walker, with a focus on design software for the PC, with their flagship CAD package AutoCAD. In 1986, Autodesk's first animation package was AutoFlix, for use with AutoCAD. Their first full 3-D animation software was 3-D Studio for DOS in 1990, which was developed under license by Gary Yost of The Yost Group.[110][111]
- 1983: Alias Research was founded in Toronto, Canada, by Stephen Bingham and others, with a focus on industrial and entertainment software for SGI workstations. Their first product was Alias-1 and shipped in 1985. In 1989, Alias was chosen to animate the pseudopod in James Cameron's The Abyss, which gave the software high-profile recognition in movie animation. In 1990 this developed into PowerAnimator, often known just as Alias.[112]
- 1984: Wavefront was founded by Bill Kovacs and others, in California, to produce computer graphics for movies and television, and also to develop and market their own software based on SGI hardware. Wavefront developed their first product, Preview, during the first year of business. The company's production department helped tune the software by using it on commercial projects, creating opening graphics for television programs. In 1988, the company introduced the Personal Visualiser.[113][114]
- 1984: TDI (Thomson Digital Image) was created in France as a subsidiary of aircraft simulator company Thomson-CSF, to develop and commercialise on their own 3-D system Explore, first released in 1986.
- 1984: Sogitec Audiovisuel, was a division of Sogitec avionics in France, founded by Xavier Nicolas for the production of computer animation films, using their own 3-D software developed from 1981 by Claude Mechoulam and others at Sogitec.[115]
- 1986: Softimage was founded by National Film Board of Canada filmmaker Daniel Langlois in Montreal. Its first product was called the Softimage Creative Environment, and was launched at SIGGRAPH '88. For the first time, all 3-D processes (modelling, animation, and rendering) were integrated. Creative Environment (eventually to be known as Softimage 3D in 1988), became a standard animation solution in the industry.[116]
- 1987: Side Effects Software was established by Kim Davidson and Greg Hermanovic in Toronto, Canada, as a production/software company based on a 3-D animation package called PRISMS, which they had acquired from their former employer Omnibus. Side Effects Software developed this procedural modelling and motion product into a high-end, tightly integrated 2-D/3-D animation software which incorporated a number of technological breakthroughs.[117]
- 1989: the companies TDI and Sogitec were merged to create the new company ExMachina.
CGI in the 1990s
Computer animation expands in film and TV
The decade saw some of the first computer-animated television series. For example Quarxs, created by media artist Maurice Benayoun and comic book artist François Schuiten, was an early example of a CGI series based on a real screenplay and not animated solely for demonstrative purposes.[118] VeggieTales, an American Christian media, is also one of the first computer-animated series. Vischer came up with the idea for VeggieTales while testing animation software as a medium for children's videos in the early 1990s.
The 1990s began with much of CGI technology now sufficiently developed to allow a major expansion into film and TV production. 1991 is widely considered the "breakout year", with two major box-office successes, both making heavy use of CGI.
The first of these was James Cameron's movie Terminator 2: Judgment Day,[119] and was the one that first brought CGI to widespread public attention. The technique was used to animate the two "Terminator" robots. The "T-1000" robot was given a "mimetic poly-alloy" (liquid metal) structure, which enabled this shapeshifting character to morph into almost anything it touched. Most of the key Terminator effects were provided by Industrial Light & Magic, and this film was the most ambitious CGI project since the 1982 film Tron.[120]
The other was Disney's Beauty and the Beast,[121] the second traditional 2-D animated film to be entirely made using CAPS. The system also allowed easier combination of hand-drawn art with 3-D CGI material, notably in the "waltz sequence", where Belle and Beast dance through a computer-generated ballroom as the camera "dollies" around them in simulated 3-D space.[122] Notably, Beauty and the Beast was the first animated film ever to be nominated for a Best Picture Academy Award.[123]
Another significant step came in 1993, with
Warner Bros' 1999 The Iron Giant was the first traditionally-animated feature to have a major character, the title character, to be fully CGI.[128]
With improving hardware, lower costs, and an ever-increasing range of software tools, CGI techniques were soon rapidly taken up in both film and television production.
In 1993, J. Michael Straczynski's Babylon 5 became the first major television series to use CGI as the primary method for their visual effects (rather than using hand-built models), followed later the same year by Rockne S. O'Bannon's SeaQuest DSV.
Also the same year, the French company
In 1995, there came the first fully computer-animation feature film,
The following years saw a greatly increased uptake of digital animation techniques, with many new studios going into production, and existing companies making a transition from traditional techniques to CGI. Between 1995 and 2005 in the US, the average effects budget for a wide-release feature film leapt from $5 million to $40 million. According to Hutch Parker, President of Production at
Motion-capture
Computer-based motion-capture started as a
Video games also began to use motion-capture to animate in-game characters. As early as 1988, an early form of motion-capture was used to animate the
Another breakthrough where a cinema film used motion-capture was creating hundreds of digital characters for the film Titanic in 1997. The technique was used extensively in 1999 to create Jar-Jar Binks and other digital characters in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.
Match moving
Match moving (also known as motion tracking or camera tracking), although related to motion capture, is a completely different technique. Instead of using special cameras and sensors to record the motion of subjects, match moving works with pre-existing live-action footage, and uses computer software alone to track specific points in the scene through multiple frames, and thereby allow the insertion of CGI elements into the shot with correct position, scale, orientation, and motion relative to the existing material. The terms are used loosely to describe several different methods of extracting subject or camera motion information from a motion picture. The technique can be 2D or 3D, and can also include matching for camera movements. The earliest commercial software examples being 3D-Equalizer from Science.D.Visions[144] and rastrack from Hammerhead Productions,[145] both starting mid-90s.
The first step is identifying suitable features that the software tracking algorithm can lock onto and follow. Typically, features are chosen because they are bright or dark spots, edges or corners, or a facial feature—depending on the particular tracking algorithm being used. When a feature is tracked it becomes a series of 2-D coordinates that represent the position of the feature across the series of frames. Such tracks can be used immediately for 2-D motion tracking, or then be used to calculate 3-D information. In 3-D tracking, a process known as "calibration" derives the motion of the camera from the inverse-projection of the 2-D paths, and from this a "reconstruction" process is used to recreate the photographed subject from the tracked data, and also any camera movement. This then allows an identical virtual camera to be moved in a 3-D animation program, so that new animated elements can be composited back into the original live-action shot in perfectly matched perspective.[146]
In the 1990s, the technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles. Camera tracking software was refined to allow increasingly complex visual effects developments that were previously impossible. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes with advanced flocking and crowd simulation software. Being mainly software-based, match moving has become increasingly affordable as computers become cheaper and more powerful. It has become an essential visual effects tool and is even used providing effects in live television broadcasts.[147]
Virtual studio
In television, a
Machinima
3-D animation software in the 1990s
There were many developments, mergers and deals in the 3-D software industry in the '90s and later.
- Wavefront followed the success of Personal Visualiser with the release of Dynamation in 1992, a powerful tool for interactively creating and modifying realistic, natural images of dynamic events. In 1993, Wavefront acquired Thomson Digital Images (TDI), with their innovative product Explore, a tool suite that included 3Design for modelling, Anim for animation, and Interactive Photorealistic Renderer (IPR) for rendering. In 1995, Wavefront was bought by Silicon Graphics, and merged with Alias.[152]
- Alias Research continued the success of PowerAnimator with movies like Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Batman Returns and Jurassic Park, and in 1993 started the development of a new entertainment software, which was later to be named Maya. Alias found customers in animated film, TV series, visual effects, and video games, and included many prominent studios, such as Industrial Light & Magic, Pixar, Sony Pictures Imageworks, Walt Disney, and Warner Bros.. Other Alias products were developed for applications in architecture and engineering. In 1995, SGI purchased both Alias Research and Wavefront in a 3-way deal, and the merged company Alias Wavefront was launched.[153]
- AliasStudio and Alias Designer became standardized on Alias|Wavefront software. In 1998, Alias|Wavefront launched Maya as its new 3-D flagship product, and this soon became the industry's most important animation tool. Maya was the merger of three packages—Wavefront's Advanced Visualizer, Alias's Power Animator, and TDI's Explore. In 2003 the company was renamed simply "Alias". In 2004, SGI sold the business to a private investment firm, and it was later renamed to Alias Systems Corporation. In 2006, the company was bought by Autodesk.[154][155]
- Softimage developed further features for Creative Environment, including the Actor Module (1991) and Eddie (1992), including tools such as inverse kinematics, enveloping, metaclay, flock animation, and many others. Softimage customers include many prominent production companies, and Softimage has been used to create animation for hundreds of major feature films and games. In 1994, Microsoft acquired Softimage, and renamed the package Softimage 3D, releasing a Windows NT port two years later.[156][157] In 1998, after helping to port the products to Windows and financing the development of Softimage and Softimage|DS, Microsoft sold the Softimage unit to Avid Technology, who was looking to expand its visual effect capabilities. Then, in 2008, Autodesk acquired the brand and the animation assets of Softimage from Avid, thereby ending Softimage Co. as a distinct entity. The video-related assets of Softimage, including Softimage|DS (now Avid|DS) continue to be owned by Avid.[158][159]
- Autodesk Inc's PC DOS-based 3D Studio was eventually superseded in 1996 when The Yost Group developed 3D Studio Max for Windows NT. Priced much lower than most competitors, 3D Studio Max was quickly seen as an affordable solution for many professionals. Of all animation software, 3D Studio Max serves the widest range of users. It is used in film and broadcast, game development, corporate and industrial design, education, medical, and web design. In 2006, Autodesk acquired Alias, bringing the StudioTools and Maya software products under the Autodesk banner, with 3D Studio Max rebranded as Autodesk 3ds Max, and Maya as Autodesk Maya. Now one of the largest software companies in the world, Autodesk serves more than 4 million customers in over 150 countries.[160][161][162]
- Side Effects Software's PRISMS was used extensively to create visual effects for broadcast and feature films into the '90s, with projects like Twister, Independence Day, and Titanic. In 1996, Side Effects Software introduced Houdini, a next-generation 3D package that proved to be more sophisticated and artist-friendly than its predecessor. Houdini is used around the world to develop cutting edge 3D animation in the film, broadcast and gaming industries, and Side Effects Software has consistently proved itself to be an industry innovator.[163][164][165]
CGI in the 2000s
2000 breakthrough capture of the reflectance field over the human face
In 2000, a team led by
Motion-capture, photorealism, and uncanny valley
The first mainstream cinema film fully made with
Motion capture is seen by many as replacing the skills of the animator, and lacking the animator's ability to create exaggerated movements that are impossible to perform live. The end credits of Pixar's film Ratatouille (2007) carry a stamp certifying it as "100% Pure Animation — No Motion Capture!" However, proponents point out that the technique usually includes a good deal of adjustment work by animators as well. Nevertheless, in 2010, the US Film Academy (AMPAS) announced that motion-capture films will no longer be considered eligible for "Best Animated Feature Film" Oscars, stating "Motion capture by itself is not an animation technique."[171][172]
Virtual cinematography
The early 2000s saw the advent of
3-D animation software in the 2000s
- Blender (software) is a free open source virtual cinematography package, used by professionals and enthusiasts alike.
- Poser is another DIY 3-D graphics program especially aimed at user-friendly animation of soft objects
- scanner, used in the production process of the Matrix sequels
- Adobe Substance is a software that allows artists to create 3-D assets, models, materials, patterns, and lighting.
CGI in the 2010s
This section needs to be updated.(October 2022) |
In SIGGRAPH 2013 Activision and USC presented a real-time digital face look-alike of "Ira" using the USC light stage X by Ghosh et al. for both reflectance field and motion capture.[173][174] The end result, both precomputed and real-time rendered with the state-of-the-art Graphics processing unit: Digital Ira,[173] looks fairly realistic. Techniques previously confined to high-end virtual cinematography systems are rapidly moving into the video games and leisure applications.
Further developments
New developments in computer animation technologies are reported each year in the United States at SIGGRAPH, the largest annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, and also at Eurographics, and at other conferences around the world.[175]
References
- ^ SIGGRAPH Whitney Profile page Archived April 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (retrieved April 20, 2012)
- ^ Alex Through the Looking-Glass: How Life Reflects Numbers and Numbers Reflect Life
- ^ NBS is now known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology, or NIST.
- ^ "Computer Development at the National Bureau of Standards." by Russell Kirsch, National Bureau of Standards, March 31, 2010.
- ^ "Fiftieth Anniversary of First Digital Image Marked", Michael E Newman, Tech Beat (news release), NIST, May 24, 2007 (retrieved August 20, 2012).
- ^ "Square Pixel Inventor Tries to Smooth Things Out", Rachel Ehrenberg, Wired News, June 28, 2010 (retrieved August 20, 2012).
- ^ Du Rietz, Peter (December 20, 2016). "Svensk datorhistoria – 1960-talet" [Swedish computer history – 1960s]. Tekniska museet (in Swedish). Archived from the original on January 3, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
In front of the oscilloscope mounted a 35 mm camera with extended magazine on a custom-made stand. The camera was controlled automatically by computer, which sent a signal to the camera when a new image has been fed on the oscilloscope. In the Nordic ADB, who counted a lot and release data stewed, they had realized that they had all the coordinates to draw perspective from the driver's seat. They took as an example of this in the future how the then nyprojekterade motorway towards Nacka, outside Stockholm, would look like. With the camera in front of the oscilloscope, they could snap a picture every twenty meters of the virtual road. The result was a fictitious trip in the virtual highway at a speed of 110 km/h. The film was transferred to 16 mm format and made in 100 copies. Technical Museum is the only known surviving copy of the film in the collections. On the film roll box says that it is the first computer-drawn film in the world. There is little other evidence that this is actually true, and that this is the world's first computer animation. The film aired on November 9, 1961 at primetime in the national television newscast Aktuellt.
- YouTube
- ^ Edward Zajac on CompArt database (retrieved 2012/04/20)
- ^ Knowlton, K. C., "Computer-Generated Movies," Science, Vol. 150, (November 1965), pp. 116–1120.
- ^ Noll, A. Michael, "Computer-Generated Three-Dimensional Movies", Computers and Automation, Vol. 14, No. 11, (November 1965), pp 20–23.
- ^ Noll, A. Michael, "A Computer Technique for Displaying n-Dimensional Hyperobjects", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 10, No. 8, (August 1967), pp 469–473.
- ^ Noll, A. Michael, "Computer Animation and the Fourth Dimension", AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol. 33, 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference, Thompson Book Company: Washington, D.C. (1968), pp. 1279–1283.
- ^ University of Washington History: William Fetter (retrieved 2012/04/20)
- ^ http://www.elysiuminc.com/gpdis/2014/DX28_Boeing-Kasik-Senesac-Visualization-DX-Open.pdf Boeing-Wichita
- ^ "Something worth seeing". Boeing Innovation Quarterly. Boeing. November 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
In 1964, William Fetter, a Boeing technical illustrator, created the first digital model of a human body to evaluate engineering designs for ergonomic quality. Exploring reach and visual field issues, he plotted a series of individual models of "The Boeing Man," which later came to be known simply as "Boeman," and produced early computer animation sequences.
- ^ "William Fetter's Boeing Man". Boeing Images. Boeing. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
William Fetter (1928–2002), a Boeing art director, was the first person to draw a human figure using a computer. This figure is known as the "Boeing Man." In 1960, Fetter coined the term "computer graphics" in a description of his work on cockpit design for the Boeing Company.
- ^ Sketchpad: A man-machine graphical communication system (retrieved 2012/04/22)
- ^ Utah – Computer Graphics history (retrieved 2012/04/22)
- ISBN 0914845802
- ^ Evans and Sutherland history page Archived June 11, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 2012/04/22)
- ^ КОНСТАНТИНОВ, Н. Н.; МИНАХИН, В. В.; ПОНОМАРЕНКО, В. Ю. (1974). ПРОГРАММА, МОДЕЛИРУЮЩАЯ МЕХАНИЗМ И РИСУЮЩАЯ МУЛЬТФИЛЬМ О НЁМ [Program simulating MECHANISM And drawing a CARTOON ABOUT IT]. Проблемы кибернетики (Problems in Cybernetics) (in Russian) (28): 193–209. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
- ^ "Kitten. – N.Konstantinov". youtube.com. April 7, 2007. Retrieved April 30, 2020.
- ^ A complete history of the Ohio State program Archived June 5, 2014, at the Wayback Machine (retrieved July 2, 2012)
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