Machinima
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Machinima, originally machinema (
Machinima-based artists, sometimes called machinimists or machinimators, are often fan laborers, by virtue of their re-use of copyrighted materials (see below). Machinima offers to provide an archive of gaming performance and access to the look and feel of software and hardware that may already have become obsolete or even unavailable. For game studies, "Machinima's gestures grant access to gaming's historical conditions of possibility and how machinima offers links to a comparative horizon that informs, changes, and fully participates in videogame culture."[2][3]
The practice of using graphics engines from
Machinima has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other styles of filmmaking. Its relative simplicity over traditional frame-based animation limits control and range of expression. Its real-time nature favors speed, cost saving, and flexibility over the higher quality of pre-rendered computer animation. Virtual acting is less expensive, dangerous, and physically restricted than live action. Machinima can be filmed by relying on in-game artificial intelligence (AI) or by controlling characters and cameras through digital puppetry. Scenes can be precisely scripted, and can be manipulated during post-production using video editing techniques. Editing, custom software, and creative cinematography may address technical limitations. Game companies have provided software for and have encouraged machinima, but the widespread use of digital assets from copyrighted games has resulted in complex, unresolved legal issues.
Machinima productions can remain close to their gaming roots and feature stunts or other portrayals of gameplay. Popular genres include dance videos, comedy, and drama. Alternatively, some filmmakers attempt to stretch the boundaries of the rendering engines or to mask the original 3-D context. The
History
Precedent
1980s software crackers added custom introductory credits sequences (intros) to programs whose copy protection they had removed.[4][5] Increasing computing power allowed for more complex intros, and the demoscene formed when focus shifted to the intros instead of the cracks.[4] The goal became to create the best 3-D demos in real-time with the least amount of software code.[6][4] Disk storage was too slow for this, so graphics had to be calculated on the fly and without a pre-existing game engine.[6][4]
In
In parallel of the video game approach, in the media art field, Maurice Benayoun's Virtual Reality artwork The Tunnel under the Atlantic (1995), often compared to video games, introduced a virtual film director, fully autonomous intelligent agent, to shoot and edit in real time a full video from the digging performance in the Pompidou Center in Paris and the Museum of Contemporary art in Montreal. The full movie, Inside the Tunnel under the Atlantic,[11] 21h long, was followed in 1997 by Inside the Paris New-Delhi Tunnel (13h long). Only short excerpts were presented to the public. The complex behavior of the Tunnel's virtual director makes it a significant precursor of later application to video games based machinimas.[12]
Doom's 1996 successor,
Quake movies
On October 26, 1996, a well-known gaming clan, the
Released in December 1997, id Software's
The December 1999 release of id's Quake III Arena posed a problem to the Quake movie community.[27] The game's demo file included information needed for computer networking; however, to prevent cheating, id warned of legal action for dissemination of the file format.[27] Thus, it was impractical to enhance software to work with Quake III.[27] Concurrently, the novelty of Quake movies was waning.[28] New productions appeared less frequently, and, according to Marino, the community needed to "reinvent itself" to offset this development.[28]
Borg War, a 90-minute animated Star Trek fan film, was produced using Elite Force 2 (a Quake III variant) and Starfleet Command 3, repurposing the games' voiceover clips to create a new plot.
Generalization
In January 2000,
Machinima began to receive mainstream notice.
At the March 2002
Collapse of Machinima, Inc.
By 2013, Machinima was the most viewed YouTube channel worldwide, but it went through various changes in ownership before suddenly collapsing on January 18, 2019, causing the loss of thousands of gaming-related videos and cutting off money from creators who had contracts with the company.[45] The closure resulted in 81 layoffs from the company.[46] This was blamed on an "obvious misunderstanding of what Machinima actually was, or what traditional media companies were even buying when they purchased a [content network]", with the possibility of future machinima distribution networks of that size emerging being slim. The reaction of fans at the collapse showed that machinima was still extremely popular.[45]
Production
Comparison to film techniques
The AMAS defines machinima as "animated filmmaking within a real-time virtual 3-D environment".[47] In other 3-D animation methods, creators can control every frame and nuance of their characters but, in turn, must consider issues such as key frames and inbetweening. Machinima creators leave many rendering details to their host environments, but may thus inherit those environments' limitations.[48] Second Life Machinima film maker Ozymandius King provided a detailed account of the process by which the artists at MAGE Magazine produce their videos. "Organizing for a photo shoot is similar to organizing for a film production. Once you find the actors / models, you have to scout locations, find clothes and props for the models and type up a shooting script. The more organized you are the less time it takes to shoot the scene."[49] Because game animations focus on dramatic rather than casual actions, the range of character emotions is often limited. However, Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd state that a small range of emotions is often sufficient, as in successful Japanese anime television series.[50]
Another difference is that machinima is created in real time, but other animation is pre-rendered.
Like live action, machinima is recorded in real-time, and real people can act and control the camera.
Berkeley sees machinima as "a strangely hybrid form, looking forwards and backwards, cutting edge and conservative at the same time".
Machinima can be less expensive than other forms of filmmaking. Strange Company produced its feature-length machinima film BloodSpell for less than £10,000.[63] Before using machinima, Burnie Burns and Matt Hullum of Rooster Teeth Productions spent US$9,000 to produce a live-action independent film. In contrast, the four Xbox game consoles used to make Red vs. Blue in 2005 cost $600.[64] The low cost caused a product manager for Electronic Arts to compare machinima to the low-budget independent film The Blair Witch Project, without the need for cameras and actors.[64] Because these are seen as low barriers to entry, machinima has been called a "democratization of filmmaking".[65] Berkeley weighs increased participation and a blurred line between producer and consumer against concerns that game copyrights limit commercialization and growth of machinima.[66]
Comparatively, machinimists using pre-made virtual platforms like Second Life have indicated that their productions can be made quite successfully with no cost at all. Creators like Dutch director Chantal Harvey, producer of the 48 Hour Film Project Machinima sector, have created upwards of 200 films using the platform.[citation needed] Harvey's advocacy of the genre has resulted in the involvement of film director Peter Greenaway who served as a juror for the Machinima category and gave a keynote speech during the event.[citation needed]
Character and camera control
Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd list four main methods of creating machinima.[67] From simple to advanced, these are: relying on the game's AI to control most actions, digital puppetry, recamming, and precise scripting of actions.[67] Although simple to produce, AI-dependent results are unpredictable, thus complicating the realization of a preconceived film script.[68] For example, when Rooster Teeth produced The Strangerhood using The Sims 2, a game that encourages the use of its AI, the group had to create multiple instances of each character to accommodate different moods.[68] Individual instances were selected at different times to produce appropriate actions.[68]
In digital puppetry, machinima creators become virtual actors. Each crew member controls a character in real-time, as in a multiplayer game.
A technique common in cutscenes of video games, scripting consists of giving precise directions to the game engine. A filmmaker can work alone this way,[77] as J. Thaddeus "Mindcrime" Skubis did in creating the nearly four-hour The Seal of Nehahra (2000), the longest work of machinima at the time.[78] However, perfecting scripts can be time-consuming.[77] Unless what-you-see-is-what-you-get (WYSIWYG) editing is available, as in Vampire: The Masquerade – Redemption, changes may need to be verified in additional runs, and non-linear editing may be difficult.[77][79] In this respect, Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd compare scripting to stop-motion animation.[77] Another disadvantage is that, depending on the game, scripting capabilities may be limited or unavailable.[80] Matinee, a machinima software tool included with Unreal Tournament 2004, popularized scripting in machinima.[77]
Limitations and solutions
When Diary of a Camper was created, no software tools existed to edit demo files into films.
Machinima creators have used different methods to handle limited character expression. The most typical ways that amateur-style machinima gets around limitations of expression include taking advantage of speech bubbles seen above players' heads when speaking, relying on the visual matching between a character's voice and appearance, and finding methods available within the game itself. Garry's Mod and Source Filmmaker include the ability to manipulate characters and objects in real-time, though the former relies on community addons to take advantage of certain engine features, and the latter renders scenes using non-real-time effects. In the Halo video game series, helmets completely cover the characters' faces. To prevent confusion, Rooster Teeth's characters move slightly when speaking, a convention shared with anime.[84] Some machinima creators use custom software.[85] For example, Strange Company uses Take Over GL Face Skins to add more facial expressions to their characters filmed in BioWare's 2002 role-playing video game Neverwinter Nights.[85] Similarly, Atussa Simon used a "library of faces" for characters in The Battle of Xerxes.[86] Some software, such as Epic Games' Impersonator for Unreal Tournament 2004 and Valve's Faceposer for Source games, have been provided by the developer.[85] Another solution is to blend in non-machinima elements, as nGame did by inserting painted characters with more expressive faces into its 1999 film Berlin Assassins.[87] It may be possible to point the camera elsewhere or employ other creative cinematography or acting.[87] For example, Tristan Pope combined creative character and camera positioning with video editing to suggest sexual actions in his controversial film Not Just Another Love Story.[88]
Legal issues
New machinima filmmakers often want to use game-provided
Generally, companies want to retain creative control over their
A case in which developer control was asserted involved Blizzard Entertainment's action against Tristan Pope's Not Just Another Love Story.[101] Blizzard's community managers encouraged users to post game movies and screenshots, but viewers complained that Pope's suggestion of sexual actions through creative camera and character positioning was pornographic.[102] Citing the user license agreement, Blizzard closed discussion threads about the film and prohibited links to it.[101] Although Pope accepted Blizzard's right to some control, he remained concerned about censorship of material that already existed in-game in some form.[103] Discussion ensued about boundaries between MMORPG player and developer control.[103] Lowood asserted that this controversy demonstrated that machinima could be a medium of negotiation for players.[104]
Microsoft and Blizzard
In August 2007, Microsoft issued its Game Content Usage Rules, a license intended to address the legal status of machinima based on its games, including the Halo series.
Surprised by the negative feedback,[109] Microsoft revised and reissued the license after discussion with Hugh Hancock and an attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation.[107] The rules allow noncommercial use and distribution of works derived from Microsoft-owned game content, except audio effects and soundtracks.[110] The license prohibits reverse engineering and material that is pornographic or otherwise "objectionable".[110] On distribution, derivative works that elaborate on a game's fictional universe or story are automatically licensed to Microsoft and its business partners.[111] This prevents legal problems if a fan and Microsoft independently conceive similar plots.[111]
A few weeks later, Blizzard Entertainment posted on WorldofWarcraft.com their "Letter to the Machinimators of the World", a license for noncommercial use of game content.[112] It differs from Microsoft's declaration in that it addresses machinima specifically instead of general game-derived content, allows use of game audio if Blizzard can legally license it, requires derivative material to meet the Entertainment Software Rating Board's Teen content rating guideline, defines noncommercial use differently, and does not address extensions of fictional universes.[113]
Hayes states that, although licensees' benefits are limited, the licenses reduce reliance on fair use regarding machinima.[114] In turn, this recognition may reduce film festivals' concerns about copyright clearance. In an earlier analogous situation, festivals were concerned about documentary films until best practices for them were developed.[115] According to Hayes, Microsoft and Blizzard helped themselves through their licenses because fan creations provide free publicity and are unlikely to harm sales.[116] If the companies had instead sued for copyright infringement, defendants could have claimed estoppel or implied license because machinima had been unaddressed for a long time.[117] Thus, these licenses secured their issuers' legal rights.[117] Even though other companies, such as Electronic Arts, have encouraged machinima, they have avoided licensing it.[118] Because of the involved legal complexity, they may prefer to under-enforce copyrights.[118] Hayes believes that this legal uncertainty is a suboptimal solution and that, though limited and "idiosyncratic", the Microsoft and Blizzard licenses move towards an ideal video gaming industry standard for handling derivative works.[119]
Semiotic mode
Just as machinima can be the cause of legal dispute in copyright ownership and illegal use, it makes heavy use of
This re-appropriation of established texts, resources, and artistic properties to tell a story or make a statement is an example of a semiotic phenomenon known as intertextuality or resemiosis.[6] A more common term for this phenomenon is "parody", but not all of these intertextual productions are intended for humor or satire, as demonstrated by the Few Good G-Men video. Furthermore, the argument of how well-protected machinima is under the guise of parody or satire is still highly debated. A piece of machinima may be reliant upon a protected property, but may not necessarily be making a statement about that property.[120] Therefore, it is more accurate to refer to it simply as resemiosis, because it takes an artistic work and presents it in a new way, form, or medium. This resemiosis can be manifested in a number of ways. The machinima-maker can be considered an author who restructures the story and/or the world that the chosen game engine is built around.[121] In the popular web series Red vs. Blue, most of the storyline takes place within the game engine of Halo: Combat Evolved and its subsequent sequels. Halo: Combat Evolved has an extensive storyline already, but Red vs. Blue only ever makes mention of this storyline once in the first episode.[122] Even after over 200 episodes of the show being broadcast onto the Internet since 2003, the only real similarities that can be drawn between Red vs. Blue and the game-world it takes place in are the character models, props, vehicles, and settings. Yet Burnie Burns and the machinima team at Rooster Teeth created an extensive storyline of their own using these game resources.
The ability to re-appropriate a game engine to film a video demonstrates intertextuality because it is an obvious example of art being a product of creation-through-manipulation rather than creation per se. The art historian Ernst Gombrich likened art to the "manipulation of a vocabulary"[123] and this can be demonstrated in the creation of machinima. When using a game world to create a story, the author is influenced by the engine. For example, since so many video games are built around the concept of war, a significant portion of machinima films also take place in war-like environments.[121]
Intertextuality is further demonstrated in machinima not only in the re-appropriation of content but in artistic and communicatory techniques. Machinima by definition is a form of
Another way that machinima demonstrates intertextuality is in its tendency to make frequent references to texts, works, and other media just like TV ads or humorous cartoons such as
Common genres
Nitsche and Lowood describe two methods of approaching machinima: starting from a video game and seeking a medium for expression or for documenting gameplay ("inside-out"), and starting outside a game and using it merely as animation tool ("outside-in").
Gaming-related comedy offers another possible entry point for new machinima producers.
Machinima has been used in music videos, of which the first documented example is Ken Thain's 2002 "Rebel vs. Thug", made in collaboration with
Others use machinima in drama. These works may or may not retain signs of their video game provenance.
Another derivative genre termed machinima verite, from
Some have used machinima to make political statements, often from
Competitions
After the QML's Quake Movie Oscars, dedicated machinima awards did not reappear until the AMAS created the Mackies for its first Machinima Film Festival in 2002.[156] The annual festival has become an important one for machinima creators.[157] Ho Chee Yue, a founder of the marketing company AKQA, helped to organize the first festival for the Asia chapter of the AMAS in 2006.[158] In 2007, the AMAS supported the first machinima festival held in Europe.[159] In addition to these smaller ceremonies, Hugh Hancock of Strange Company worked to add an award for machinima to the more general Bitfilm Festival in 2003.[160] Other general festivals that allow machinima include the Sundance Film Festival, the Florida Film Festival, and the New Media Film Festival.[157] The Ottawa International Animation Festival opened a machinima category in 2004, but, citing the need for "a certain level of excellence", declined to award anything to the category's four entries that year.[161]
Machinima has been showcased in contests sponsored by game companies.
Mainstream appearances
Machinima has appeared on television, starting with
Commercial use of machinima has increased.[166][167] Rooster Teeth sells DVDs of their Red vs. Blue series and, under sponsorship from Electronic Arts, helped to promote The Sims 2 by using the game to make a machinima series, The Strangerhood.[166] Volvo Cars sponsored the creation of a 2004 advertisement, Game: On, the first film to combine machinima and live action.[168] Later, Electronic Arts commissioned Rooster Teeth to promote their Madden NFL 07 video game.[169] Blockhouse TV uses Moviestorm's machinima software to produce its pre-school educational DVD series Jack and Holly
Game developers have continued to increase support for machinima.
In a 2010 interview with
Machinima has also been used for music video clips. The first machinima music video to air on MTV is that of Zero 7's "In the Waiting Line" in 2003, animated in the id Tech 3 engine by Tommy Pallotta.[174] Second Life virtual artist Bryn Oh created a work for Australian performer Megan Bernard's song "Clean Up Your Life",[175] released in 2016.[176] The first music video for 2018's "Old Town Road", by Lil Nas X, was composed entirely of footage from the 2018 Western action-adventure game Red Dead Redemption 2.[177]
See also
- 3DMM
- Computer animation
- Computer-generated imagery
- The Flying Luna Clipper
- 1996 in machinima
- 2003 in machinima
- 2004 in machinima
- 2005 in machinima
- 2006 in machinima
- 2007 in machinima
- Overwatch and pornography
Notes
- ISBN 978-1-910561-41-6.
- ^ Krapp 2010, p. 160
- ISBN 978-1-64889-214-1. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ a b c d Marino 2004a, p. 5
- ^ Green 1995, p. 1
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Nitsche, Michael (2007). "Claiming Its Space: Machinima". dichtung-digital.de. Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
- ^ a b Marino 2004a, p. 3
- ^ Lowood 2006, p. 30
- ^ Lowood 2005, p. 11
- ^ Krapp 2011, p. 93
- ^ Benayoun 2011, pp. 44–49
- ^ Benayoun 2011, pp. 50–54
- ^ Lowood 2005, p. 12
- ^ a b Marino 2004a, p. 4
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 28
- ^ a b Lowood 2006, p. 33
- ^ a b Lowood 2006, p. 32
- ^ Lowood 2005, pp. 13, 16
- ^ Lowood 2005, p. 13
- ^ a b c Marino 2004a, p. 7
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 28; Marino 2004a, pp. 6–7
- ^ Machinima.com staff 2001; Heaslip 1998
- ^ Moss 2001
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 179
- ^ a b c Marino 2004a, p. 8
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 9
- ^ a b c Marino 2004a, pp. 10–11
- ^ a b c Marino 2004a, p. 11
- ^ "DEUX EX MACHIMINA – BORG WAR DOING TREK CON". Newsarama.com. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2007.
- ^ "See an Unauthorized Animated Star Trek Feature Film". IF Magazine. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 19, 2007.
- ^ "'Borg Wars' for next generation of movie makers". Nashua Telegraph. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved July 19, 2007.
- ^ a b c Marino 2004a, p. 12
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 183.
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 30
- ^ a b Lowood 2007, p. 184
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 13
- ^ Ebert 2000; Marino 2004a, p. 13
- ^ Marino 2004a, pp. 14–15
- ^ a b Marino 2004a, p. 16
- ^ a b Marino 2004a, p. 17
- ^ Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences 2007
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 18
- ^ a b Marino 2004a, p. 19
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 23
- ^ ISSN 1357-0978. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
- ^ Roberts, Samuel (February 4, 2019). "Machinima is closing, and 81 people have reportedly been laid off". PC Gamer. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 1
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 19–20
- ^ "MAGE Magazine". Retrieved September 24, 2015.
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 78–79
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 24
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 27
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 22
- ^ McMahan 2005, pp. 36–37; Marino 2004a, pp. 347–348, 362
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 142–143
- ^ McMahan 2005, p. 37
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 142
- ^ a b Nitsche 2009, pp. 114–115
- ^ a b Berkeley 2006, p. 67
- ^ Nitsche 2005, pp. 223–224
- ^ Nitsche 2005, p. 214
- ^ Nitsche 2005, pp. 224–225
- ^ Price 2007
- ^ a b Thompson 2005, p. 2
- ^ Thompson 2005, p. 2; Matlack & Grover 2005
- ^ Berkeley 2006, pp. 68–70
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 80
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 82
- ^ a b c d Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 87
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 349
- ^ Nitsche 2009, p. 113
- ^ Marino 2004a, p. 351
- ^ Nitsche 2009, p. 114
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 90
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 90–91
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 91
- ^ a b c d e Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 94
- ^ Law 2000; Skubis 2000
- ^ Hancock 2000, p. 1
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 129
- ^ Lowood 2006, p. 33; Wu n.d.
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 114
- ^ Moltenbrey 2005
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 131
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 78
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 79
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 130
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 188
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 96
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 98
- ^ a b Varney 2007, p. 2
- ^ Quoted in Varney 2007, p. 2
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 98–99
- ^ Sunder 2006, p. 309
- ^ a b Berkeley 2006, p. 69
- ^ Hayes 2008, p. 569
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 569, 582
- ^ Marcus 2008, p. 80
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 99; Konow 2005, p. 2
- ^ Thompson 2005, p. 3
- ^ a b Lowood 2007, p. 190
- ^ Lowood 2007, pp. 188, 190
- ^ a b Lowood 2007, pp. 190–191
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 191
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 569, 571
- ^ James 2007, p. 29
- ^ a b Hayes 2008, p. 570
- ^ James 2007, pp. 29–30; Hayes 2008, p. 570
- ^ a b James 2007, p. 30
- ^ a b Hayes 2008, p. 571
- ^ a b Hayes 2008, pp. 571–572
- ^ Hayes 2008, p. 572
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 573–576
- ^ Hayes 2008, p. 576
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 576–577
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 577–579
- ^ a b Hayes 2008, p. 580
- ^ a b Hayes 2008, p. 583
- ^ Hayes 2008, pp. 585, 587
- ^ Dogan 2012.
- ^ a b Frølunde 2012.
- ^ Burns, Burnie. "Red vs. Blue Episode 1 Script". Archived from the original on November 27, 2010. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
- ^ Hawthorn 1993, p. 125.
- ^ Jacobs 2011.
- ^ Frølunde 2010.
- ISBN 978-0415363754.
- ^ Freeman's Mind - Accursed Farms
- ^ Lowood 2008
- ^ a b c d Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 40
- ^ Lowood 2006, p. 34
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 40, 43
- ^ Tuttle 2007
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 43
- ^ a b Andrews 2007, p. 1
- ^ Lowood 2006, p. 37
- ^ Wilonsky 2002, p. 1
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 46
- ^ Lankshear & Knobel 2007, p. 226
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 46–47
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 66
- ^ Hanson 2004, p. 62
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 66–67
- ^ Robertson 2003, p. 11
- ^ "Postal 2 Features In Music Video". Gameworld Industries. July 17, 2003. Archived from the original on September 30, 2011. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ Lowood 2007, pp. 187–188
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 50–52
- ^ Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 50–51
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 52
- ^ a b c d Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 54
- ^ Horwatt 2008, p. 12
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 167
- ^ Diderich 2005
- ^ Horwatt 2008, p. 13
- ^ Horwatt 2008, p. 13; Gish 2008
- ^ Chao, Loretta (February 12, 2010). "'War of Internet Addiction' Wins Hearts and Minds in China". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ Marino 2002
- ^ a b c Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, p. 69
- ^ Association of Machinima Arts & Sciences n.d.
- ^ Harwood 2007
- ^ "The Bitfilm Competitions" (PDF). Bitfilm Festival. July 2008. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009. Retrieved February 27, 2009.
- ^ Osborne 2004
- ^ Maragos 2005
- ^ PC Zone staff 2004, pp. 12
- ^ Machinima.com staff 2006
- ^ Wallenstein 2008
- ^ a b Kelland, Morris & Lloyd 2005, pp. 58–59
- ^ Rooster Teeth[full citation needed]
- ^ Marino 2004b
- ^ "Red Vs. Blue: The Cash Is Always Greener". Forbes. December 10, 2006. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
- ^ McGraw–Hill. August 20, 2007. p. 2. Archived from the originalon August 13, 2009. Retrieved March 1, 2009.
- ^ Lowood 2007, p. 166
- ^ Musgrove 2005
- ^ McDougall, Jaz (August 26, 2010). "Valve want to make the Half-Life movie themselves". PC Magazine.
- ^ "Guinness World Records: First machinima music video to air on MTV". guinnessworldrecords.com. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 21, 2022.
- ^ Megan Bernard - Clean Up Your Life (HD). December 31, 2015. Archived from the original on November 17, 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ Oh, Bryn (January 8, 2016). "Clean up your life by Megan Bernard". Archived from the original on February 24, 2016.
- ^ Thier 2019.
References
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- Association of Machinima Arts & Sciences. "Machinimasia Festival in Singapore". Association of Machinima Arts & Sciences. Archived from the original on April 15, 2011. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
- Andrews, Marke (September 27, 2007). "My Second Life brings virtual world alive on TV". ISSN 0832-1299. Archived from the originalon June 11, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2009.
- Benayoun, Maurice (2011). Open Art 1980-2010. Paris France: Nouvelles éditions Scala. pp. 44–55. ISBN 978-2-35988-046-5.
- Berkeley, Leo (2006). "Situating Machinima in the New Mediascape". The Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society. 4 (2): 65–80. ISSN 1449-0706. Retrieved March 3, 2009.
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Further reading
- Greenaway, Peter. "Peter Greenaway & Expert Panel Select 48 Hour Machinima Contest Winners". Hamlet Au. New World Notes. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- Mazalek, Ali; Nitsche, Michael (June 13, 2007). "Tangible interfaces for real-time 3D virtual environments". Proceedings of the international conference on Advances in computer entertainment technology. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. Vol. 203. S2CID 2559639.
- Picard, Martin (2007). "Machinima: Video Game As An Art Form?". Loading... 1 (1). Canadian Game Studies Association. Archived from the original on February 15, 2012. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
- Reid, Christopher (2009). "Fair Game: The Application of Fair Use Doctrine to Machinima". ISSN 1079-9699. Retrieved May 10, 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-262-24045-1. Retrieved March 1, 2009.
- Veigl, Thomas (2011). "Machinima: On the Invention and Innovation of a New Visual Media Technology". Imagery in the 21st Century. ISBN 9780262015721.
External links
- Machinima at Curlie
- Machinima at the Internet Archive