History of weapons
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Major innovations in the history of weapons have included the adoption of different materials – from stone and wood to different metals, and modern synthetic materials such as plastics – and the developments of different weapon styles either to fit the terrain or to support or counteract different battlefield tactics and defensive equipment.
People have used weapons in warfare, hunting, self-defense, law enforcement, and criminal activity. Weapons also serve many other purposes in society including use in sports, collections for display, and historical displays and demonstrations. As technology has developed throughout history, weapons have changed with it.
The use of weapons is a major driver of
Prehistory and the ancient world
Stone tips, arrows and bows
Stone tips are one of the earliest forms of weapons assumed by archaeologists, with the earliest surviving examples of stone tips with animal blood dating to around 64,000 years ago from the KwaZulu-Natal, in what is now South Africa.[2] These early arrows were just a stone tip, which is advantageous over organic materials because it enables weapons to cut through tougher hides and create larger wounds, killing more easily.[2]
The oldest known evidence of the bow and arrow comes from South African sites such as Sibudu Cave, where likely arrowheads have been found, dating from approximately 72,000–60,000 years ago.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
The oldest extant bows, from the Holmegård region in Denmark, date to around 6,000 BCE. The bows were quite effective against the enemies that were far from the archer, and so archers were sought after in recruitment for armies. When people started horse riding at around 2500 BCE, composite bows were created. In 1200 BCE, the Hittites, originating from Anatolia, shot arrows using their bows on light chariots. In 1000 BCE some of these horse-riding archers from Central Asia invented the recurve bow, which was in the shape of a "W" and had an improved elasticity.
People from the
ONCE upon a time, Huangdi went out hunting armed with a stone knife. Suddenly, a tiger sprang out of the undergrowth, Huangdi shinned up a mulberry tree to escape. Being a patient creature, the tiger sat down at the bottom of the tree to see what would happen next. Huangdi saw that the mulberry wood was supple, so he cut off a branch with his stone knife to make a bow. Then he saw a vine growing on the tree, and he cut a length from it to make a string. Next he saw some bamboo nearby that was straight, so he cut a piece to make an arrow. With his bow and arrow, he shot the tiger in the eye. The tiger ran off and Huangdi made his escape.[9]
As humans discovered new natural resources beneath the Earth's surface, traditional weapons were replaced as methods for metal-working developed.
After the discovery of pure copper in Anatolia, around 6000 BCE, copper metallurgy spread in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Around 3500 BCE the art of metallurgy spread into India, China and Europe.[10]
Bronze significantly contributed to the ancient world and helped cultures of
The Sumerians and Akkadians
The earliest civilizations in southern Mesopotamia, modern day Iraq, were the Sumerians and Akkadians. The occupied land was open to enemy attacks from the many barbarian tribes. The Sumerian warrior was equipped with spears, maces, swords, clubs and slings. Sargon of Akkad (2333–2279 BCE) was a great military leader and used both infantry and chariots. The chariot troops used both spears and bows and arrows which proved to be effective.[15]
For a long time the Egyptians' strategically advantageous locale allowed them to remain free from enemy attacks. Egypt was considered to be peaceful in the ancient world. They never considered training an army for the sake of invasion or defense of their own province.
Before the Hyksos invasion, the Egyptians did not have a cavalry because, it is believed, their small horses were not strong enough to support a rider. It was from the Hyksos charioteers that the use of horses in warfare was introduced to Egyptian culture. When the Egyptians came to power once again, after a civil war with the Hyksos rulers, they continued to use horse-drawn chariots in their armies.
Fish were a major source of food in the ancient world, and the Egyptians lived on whatever the river Nile had to offer to them.
War chariots
Chariots, a mode of transportation, were used as a weapon by ancient peoples. The Hittites used chariots to crash into enemies, whereas the Egyptians used them to stay away from enemies and attack them by arrows and spears.
These vehicles were first made in Mesopotamia by the Sumerians, as four-wheeled wagons each pulled by four donkeys. Every wagon held two people; a driver, and a warrior armed with a spear or an ax. Some historians[
The Khopesh sword
The Khopesh, also called the
Trident
The classical
Assyrian Empire
Ancient Greek weapons
Ancient Greece was surrounded by hostile neighbours such as Persia, and later Rome. The Greeks had adopted a different pattern of warfare and even fashioned their weapons differently. They had adopted a very strategic style of fighting, researching the strengths and weaknesses of their enemies, and developed their weapons accordingly.
When the Persians met the Greek army they outnumbered it three to one, the Persian army consisting of infantry and excellent cavalry. Their tactics were primarily defensive since their main weapon was the bow; they were also supplied with the akinakes, a dagger-like sword. The Greeks used long spears,
The victories in the Greco-Persian war at
The Macedonians
The
The Romans
After Rome was
Swords
Originating in Spain, the gladius was adopted by the Romans as one of their most commonly used weapons for close combat. Typically 30 cm in length, characterizing a short sword, the term gladius was also applied to longer swords. Though many swords were double-edged for ease of cutting, this was not always the case. In addition, the geometry of the sword's point varied over time due to changing combat styles, but all were tapered to allow for thrusting.[27] The gladius was also suitable for cutting and chopping. It was mainly used for thrusting, however, and thus had limited effect when wielded from horseback. These swords were made with an iron blade to which a bronze-covered wood, or ivory cross guard, pommel, and grip would be attached. The gladius varied in length and size as Roman soldiers of different ranks used gladius measuring around 34.5 and 64 centimeters.[28] There were other short sword variations that were classified with names other than gladius. One such example is the sica, which was about 40 cm long and had a curved tip.[29] To engage in close combat, Roman soldiers would lead with their shield protected from volleys of arrows or pila and thrust forward with their sword.[27]
Spears
In addition to short swords, Roman infantry typically carried a spear or other type of polearm. The most common was known as the javelin, a heavy spear that could be either thrown or thrusted.[30] Similar in function to the javelin was the fuscina. Although not used by the Roman military, this fork-like trident was one of the most popular gladiator weapons.[29] A version of the javelin that had a much longer and thinner tip was the pilum, which could pierce armor or shields when thrown. Several pila could be thrown to initiate combat, disrupting the structure and defense of enemy armies and providing an opportunity for close combat, where the gladius would take over. The design of the pilum allowed it to become lodged in an enemy shield. Removing a pilum from a shield was often difficult and time-consuming during combat. In fact, most were not reusable after removal.[31]
Catapults
Siege warfare gave the Roman army significant offensive advantages over their enemies. Though the catapult was developed in ancient Greece, the Romans were able to replace the traditional Greek catapult made of wood making the most stressed components out of iron or bronze. This allowed for a reduction in size and also the ability to increase the stress levels to provide more power.[32] Since a detailed understanding of mathematics and mechanics was required to design the catapult, it stands as a prime example of cooperation between ancient science and technology. Additional knowledge in topics like metallurgy and machine design helped to improve the performance of catapults. One example is the addition of machine elements like springs and copper bearings.[33]
It was known that the size of the catapult's components should be proportional to the weight of its intended projectile. As a result, tables relating standard part sizes and common projectile weights were assembled, which drastically increased the efficiency and production rate of catapults.[33] The Roman catapult could be moved and operated by a single soldier, which allowed a more efficient use of soldiers and resources. These machines were torsion-powered and most were used to launch large spherical or dart-like projectiles.[32] However, more creative options were often used. These included poisonous snakes, jars of bees, and dead bodies that were infected with diseases like the plague. The catapult was versatile, and could effectively launch any projectile that fit in its launch bucket.[34]
The Romans also developed an automatic repeating catapult called the scorpion. This was smaller than other catapults but had more moving parts. The rope coils were often made of twisted bovine sinews, horsehair or women's hair. The kinetic power delivered by a catapult was dependent on the diameter of these coils, making the coil diameter the dimensional standard for power rating. This would be similar to how the caliber system is used in modern firearms.[35]
Early Middle Ages
The Barbarian tribes from Germania kept penetrating deeper into the Roman territory, some of these tribes were the Osthrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals and Franks. After the death of Marcus Aurelius, Rome became vulnerable to attacks from all directions. The Huns, a tribe said to be from steppe regions of Central Asia started to push other barbarian tribes into Roman territories, the Huns not only attacked other barbarian tribes but eventually attacked Rome. By this time the Roman Empire was divided into East and West. The Huns always fought a battle on horseback as they were not used to infantry lines. Their favourite weapon was the composite bow.[36]
Military organization
After the defeat of
Weapons of the barbarians
Many barbarians had served in the Roman army and so used similar weapons to those in that army. However, after a brief period, the barbarian tribes including the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Franks started to develop and make their own weapons. Archers began to fire iron-tipped arrows, the cavalry and infantry both initiated the use of longer two-edged swords. Meanwhile, the Franks used a variety of weapons, they chose not to wear their armor and instead carried more weapons. In 470 Sidonius Apollinaris recalls his first meeting with Frankish soldiers and according to him, the Franks hung their swords onto their shoulders, they also carried with them barbed lances and throwing axes. Many Frankish warriors also did not wear helmets. They carried their traditional double-edged axe and never carried any missile weapons.[39]
Amongst all the barbarian tribes,
The Byzantine armoury
During the reign of
In around 672, an incendiary substance known as
Weapons of the Mediterranean
The Islamic world had already advanced way ahead of others in military engineering which, according to historians, was due to trade relations with China. The Islamic world had learned that the Chinese technology, was known to be superior to that of the Greeks or the Romans. Arab army generals were encouraging the use of new technology and inherited a highly sophisticated tradition of siege warfare.
The
Chinese gunpowder weapons
Chinese people had witnessed conflicts and constant warfare all across China. Fifty years after the fall of the Tang dynasty, China witnessed five successive dynasties in the north along with a dozen small nations in the south in a short timespan. The quick rise and fall of these countries and the fragmented nature is a result of the rise of warlords towards the later half of the Tang dynasty.
In 960,
Later Middle Ages
The Normans
The
Advanced warfare
Western Europe by this time had already reached a level of military sophistication, the Arabs had even started to adopt manjaniq ifranji or manjaniq firanji, the Frankish or European trebuchet, a stone-throwing engine. The Europeans were by all means trying to outclass the Byzantines, the Indians and the Arabs in siege technology.[48] The Mongols on the other hand had brought about a revolution in siege warfare. They had learned the art of making siege weapons while conquering northern China, recovering some mangonels, trebuchets and rams from Chinese engineers.
The Crusades
The Normans and the Byzantines were successful in driving out the Muslim invaders from the
Not much is known about the weapons that were being produced in Western Europe at the time of Crusades, but it is evident that their cavalry used lances. The Europeans armies also used crossbows excessively, it was said to be the best known infantry weapon used by the Europeans. By the late 13th century, the power of crossbows increased, infantry weapons of the Crusaders varied in shape, sizes and quality. Apart from spears, swords and daggers, foot soldiers were equipped with an extraordinary array of pole-arms, often reflecting their place of origin. The double edged sword was extensively used by both foot knights and mounted knights.
The Islamic armies too had a sophisticated military organization, their armies consisted of the Central Asian Turkish
Hundred Years War
The Hundred Years' War was a series of big and small wars fought between France and England from 1337 to 1453. In the year 1337, the French
During this period, most of the Europeans armies relied mainly on infantry, the infantry dominated armies were taking a toll on cavalry dominated armies. Digging ditches, constructing wagon fortresses, or flooding already marshy ground, so that the enemy could attack from only one direction, were some of the methods employed by both the armies during the Hundred Years' War.
Longbow
The English longbow was greatly responsible for making England a major military power in the late medieval period, the English had introduced this deadly longbow during the
Cavalry weapons
The basic objective of a cavalry knight was to charge into enemy lines and create chaos. At this time, the old shields and armours were replaced by more sophisticated and advanced shields and armour. Lances were used by the mounted knights for initial charge, after the initial charge and annihilation of the enemy front lines, the lances were discarded and swords, axes or war hammer were used for close combat.
Gunpowder weapons
The invention of gunpowder weapons revolutionized siege warfare, Gunpowder is said to have been conceived in China. It was when the Mongols, after invading China, went on to subdue Japan. Their ships sunk from being hit by a typhoon, resulting in half of their army drowning at sea. Marine archaeology has revealed that the Mongols were carrying gunpowder in ceramic pots, similar pots with ignited fuses had been shot from mechanical artillery against the Japanese defenders. Even the old Japanese paintings show the Japanese samurai defending themselves against bombs and rockets hurled by the invaders.[52]
Some historians have observed that only 14 percent of men in Europe owned guns,
Early modern period
Medieval weapons continued to be used during the Renaissance, such as in the Islamic gunpowder empires[55] and the English Civil War. These weapons included the guisarme, halberd, sword, mace, and partisan. The halberd was a traditional weapon used by the Swiss, consisting of an axe-blade topped with a spike, with a hook or pick on the back, on top of a long pole.[56] This weapon was mostly used by foot soldiers against cavalry. Halberds became obsolete when improved pikes started to be produced in huge numbers. Meanwhile, the partisan was introduced in England in the 14th century and was used excessively and extensively in Europe and especially in France. The original partisan was spear with small wings added below it.
The sword remained the most popular weapon during Renaissance, however it underwent many changes. Various extensions were added designed to protect the hands of its owner. The
Siege guns
China was the first place where cannons were used for battle. Metal cannons were manufactured and mounted on the Great Wall of China to protect it from the Mongolian hordes, the Mongols learned this technology and made cannons to invade Korea. In 1593 cannons were used most effectively in the Siege of Pyongyang, Ming warriors made cannons to fight the Japanese, the battle was won by the Ming warriors because the Japanese lacked cannons or any sort of gunpowder weapons.
During the siege of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror, sultan of Turkey, ordered his Hungarian engineer, Urban to develop the biggest guns ever seen. Once these huge guns, cannons or bombards were in position, the walls of Constantinople came tumbling down. The introduction of such bombards had a profound effect on the European society, engineers started to design their walls keeping in mind the danger the walls could have when facing the newly introduced bombards.[25]
Modern period
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The use of the bayonet, beginning in the 17th century, allowed soldiers to use muskets as pikes in close combat. The
Submarine technology gradually advanced during the 17th and 18th centuries. Early submarines were mounted with spars and powered by hand cranks. By the mid-19th century, self-propelled torpedoes started to be used. They were largely ineffective until the end of the 19th century, when electricity and internal combustion engines could make them more powerful.[61]
The ruler of the
In 1803, the British began using shrapnel.[63]
Rifling was invented in 1498, but it was not practical until the 19th century.[64]
As well as these advances in firearms and artillery technology, new repeating firearms began to emerge on the battlefield. As soon as matchlocks appeared, there were attempts to create non-muzzleloading firearms. Early attempts such as the
20th century
This century saw a large increase in weapons innovation, but also their ability to adversely affect the entire planet.
Chemical weapons were first used on a large scale on the battlefield in World War I, starting from 1914, despite existing international conventions that prohibited the use of such weapons.
In 1915, the first propeller plane that could safely fire a machine gun through the propeller blades was invented. This led to later dogfights during World War I.[65] Tanks were also used for the first time during World War I, but they were often slow and unreliable at first. However, they did allow more mobility in the war. Early tanks were mounted with machine guns and light artillery. Armored vehicles with wheels had been used earlier, but they could not cross trenches.[66] Tanks were used a lot more and in greater numbers in World War II.
The first weapon designed to be guided to target is the German
The first weapon confirmed to reach
The first
The first weapons designed to attack targets in space were developed by both the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, particularly with their respective anti-satellite missiles.
21st century
This century saw increased use of guided weapons, to reduce the risk of soldier fatalities and to increase effectiveness.
The first practical
There are new physical principles weapons being created using emerging technologies such as super-high frequencies or psychophysics.
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Löffler, D.; McGraw, J. J.; Johannsen, N. N. (2016). "Weapons in and as history. On the ontogenerative function of materialized preemption and intelligence in weapons technology". Identities. 16 (1–2): 68–77.
- ^ a b Lombard, Marlize and Laurel Phillipson, "Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa", Antiquity, Vol.84, No.325, pp. 635–648.
- .
- JSTOR 40650023.
- S2CID 162438490.
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- ^ "How bow and arrow were invented" (PDF).
- ISBN 1-84171-788-6.
- ^ "Military". World History Timeline. Archived from the original on 24 November 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
- ^ The Golden Chinese Archaeology; Part 2; Bronze Age of China Archived 28 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "From Copper to Bronze to Conquest". Discover Copper. copper.org. 2006. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
- ISBN 0-253-20985-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84724-513-7.
- ^ Edward Mcnall p. 34.
- ^ Edward Mcnall pp. 37–38.
- ^ "Medinet Habu and the Sea Peoples". Retrieved 2 October 2015.
- ISBN 1-85532-939-5.
- ^ "The Chariot in Egyptian Warfare". www.touregypt.net.
- ^ Franck, David and Irene. Timelines of War: A Chronology of Warfare from 100,000 BCE to the Present. Boston: Little, Brown, 1994.
- ISBN 0-7478-0142-8.
- ISBN 0-520-00005-6.
- ^ "Pillai Maya; Ancient Greek Weapons". Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
- ^ a b DeVries & Smith
- ISBN 978-1-84217-159-2.
- ^ a b Bishop, M. C. (17 November 2016). The Gladius: The Roman Short Sword. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6.
- ^ DeVries & Smith p. 20.
- ^ PMID 16289900.
- OCLC 959037527.
- ^ Bishop, M. C. (18 May 2017). The Pilum: The Roman Heavy Javelin. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6.
- ^ OCLC 859316655.
- ^ S2CID 140749845.
- ^ Gurstelle, William (March 2015). "The Roman Catapult Revived". Popular Science. 286: 68.
- .
- ^ DeVries & Smith p. 5.
- ^ DeVries & Smith p. 6.
- ^ DeVries & Smith pp. 8–9.
- ISBN 978-0-582-41861-5. pp. 108–109.
- ^ Bachrach, Bernard S. "Procopius, Agathias and the Frankish", Speculum 45 (1970): 436–437).
- ^ a b Nicolle
- ^ Herbst p. 7.
- ^ Nicolle p. 4.
- ^ Nicolle p. 5.
- ^ Herbst p. 8.
- ^ "Invention of Gunpowder". About.com – Eductation. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
- ^ Fuller, J. F. C. (1954). The Decisive Battles of the Western World, Eyre & Spottiswoode.
- ^ Nicolle pp. 5–6.
- ^ Nicolle pp. 169–170.
- ^ "The Hundred Years War- The Final phase". Retrieved 4 July 2009.
- ^ ISBN 1-85260-412-3
- ^ Reid, William (1976). Weapons Through the Ages. New York: Crescent.
- ^ ISBN 0-8018-6994-3.
- ^ Herbst pp. 8-9.
- ISBN 978-0226346779.
- ^ "Other Medieval Weapons Terminology – Spears, Axes, Lances, Maces, Halberds". Retrieved 22 November 2010.
- ISBN 978-1-84383-405-2.
- ISBN 0-87044-091-8.
- ^ "Missiles mainstay of Pak's N-arsenal". The Times of India. 21 April 2008. Archived from the original on 24 September 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
- ^ "History of Arms and Armor". History World. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
- ^ "Submarine-The History of Submarine War". Military History Monthly. 26 March 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
- ^ Roddam Narasimha (1985). "Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D." National Aerospace Laboratories, India. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ a b Marshall, Michael. "Timeline: Weapons Technology". New Scientist. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
- ^ "Dates in the History of Firearms". American Firearms Institute. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
- ^ "The Birth of the Fighter Plane, 1915". EyeWitness to History.com. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
- ^ Trueman, Chris. "Tanks and World War One". The History Learning Site. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
References
- DeVries, Kelly & Smith, Robert (2007). Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-526-1.
- Nicolle, David (2003). Byzantium, the Islamic World and India AD 476–1526. Medieval Siege Weapons. Vol. 2. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-459-7.
- Brinton, Crane; John B. Cristopher; Robert Lee Wolff (1967). A History of Civilization -Vol I. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
- Burns, Edward Mcnall (1998). Western Civilizations. New York: W W Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97221-4.
- Herbst, Judith (2005). The History of Weapons (Major inventions through History). Twenty-First Century Books. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8225-3805-9.