Visigoths

The Visigoths were subsequently settled in southern Gaul as foederati to the Romans, a relationship that was established in 418. This developed as an independent kingdom with its capital at Toulouse, and they extended their authority into Hispania at the expense of the Suebi and Vandals who had taken control of large swathes of Roman territory. In 507, Visigothic rule in Gaul was ended by the Franks under Clovis I, who defeated them in the Battle of Vouillé.

It is within what is now Spain and Portugal that the Visigoths created the

The Visigoths founded the only new cities in western Europe from the fall of the Western half of the Roman Empire until the rise of the Carolingian dynasty. Many Visigothic names are still in use in the modern Spanish and Portuguese languages. Their most notable legacy, however, was the Visigothic Code, which served, among other things, as the basis for court procedure in most of Christian Iberia until the Late Middle Ages, centuries after the demise of the kingdom.

Nomenclature: Vesi, Tervingi, Visigoths

The Visigoths were never called Visigoths, only Goths, until Cassiodorus used the term, when referring to their loss against Clovis I in 507. Cassiodorus apparently invented the term based on the model of the "Ostrogoths", but using the older name of the Vesi, one of the tribal names which the fifth-century poet Sidonius Apollinaris, had already used when referring to the Visigoths.^[7][8] The first part of the Ostrogoth name is related to the word "east", and Jordanes, the medieval writer, later clearly contrasted them in his Getica, stating that "Visigoths were the Goths of the western country."^[9] According to Wolfram, Cassiodorus created this east–west understanding of the Goths, which was a simplification and literary device, while political realities were more complex.^[10] Cassiodorus used the term "Goths" to refer to only the Ostrogoths, whom he served, and reserved the geographic reference "Visigoths" for the Gallo-Spanish Goths. The term "Visigoths" was later used by the Visigoths themselves in their communications with the Byzantine Empire, and was still in use in the 7th century.^[10]

Two older tribal names from outside the Roman empire are associated with Visigoths who formed within the empire. The first references to any Gothic tribes by Roman and Greek authors were in the third century, notably including the Thervingi, who were once referred to as Goths by Ammianus Marcellinus.^[11] Much less is known of the "Vesi" or "Visi", from whom the term "Visigoth" was derived. Before Sidonius Apollinaris, the Vesi were first mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum, a late-4th- or early-5th-century list of Roman military forces. This list also contains the last mention of the "Thervingi" in a classical source.^[11]

Although he did not refer to the Vesi, Tervingi or Greuthungi, Jordanes identified the Visigothic kings from

Wolfram, who still recently defends the equation of Vesi with the Tervingi, argues that while primary sources occasionally list all four names (as in, for example, Gruthungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Visi), whenever they mention two different tribes, they always refer either to "the Vesi and the Ostrogothi" or to "the Tervingi and the Greuthungi", and they never pair them up in any other combination. In addition, Wolfram interprets the Notitia Dignitatum as equating the Vesi with the Tervingi in a reference to the years 388–391.^[14] On the other hand, another recent interpretation of the Notitia is that the two names, Vesi and Tervingi, are found in different places in the list, "a clear indication that we are dealing with two different army units, which must also presumably mean that they are, after all, perceived as two different peoples".^[7] Peter Heather has written that Wolfram's position is "entirely arguable, but so is the opposite".^[15]

Wolfram believes that "Vesi" and "Ostrogothi" were terms each tribe used to boastfully describe itself and argues that "Tervingi" and "Greuthungi" were geographical identifiers each tribe used to describe the other.^[8] This would explain why the latter terms dropped out of use shortly after 400, when the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions.^[16] Wolfram believes that the people Zosimus describes were those Tervingi who had remained behind after the Hunnic conquest.^[17] For the most part, all of the terms discriminating between different Gothic tribes gradually disappeared after they moved into the Roman Empire.^[8]

Many recent scholars, such as Peter Heather, have concluded that Visigothic group identity emerged only within the Roman Empire.^[18] Roger Collins also believes that the Visigothic identity emerged from the Gothic War of 376–382 when a collection of Tervingi, Greuthungi and other "barbarian" contingents banded together in multiethnic foederati (Wolfram's "federate armies") under Alaric I in the eastern Balkans, since they had become a multi ethnic group and could no longer claim to be exclusively Tervingian.^[19]

Other names for other Gothic divisions abounded. In 469, the Visigoths were called the "Alaric Goths".

The name Tervingi may mean "forest people", with the first part of the name related to Gothic triu, and English "tree".[8] This is supported by evidence that geographic descriptors were commonly used to distinguish people living north of the Black Sea both before and after Gothic settlement there, by evidence of forest-related names among the Tervingi, and by the lack of evidence for an earlier date for the name pair Tervingi–Greuthungi than the late third century.^[22] That the name Tervingi has pre-Pontic, possibly Scandinavian, origins still has support today.^[23]

The Visigoths are called Wesi or Wisi by

Early origins

The Visigoths emerged from the Gothic tribes, probably a derivative name for the

Long struggles between the neighboring Vandili and Lugii people with the Goths may have contributed to their earlier exodus into mainland Europe. The vast majority of them settled between the Oder and Vistula rivers until overpopulation (according to Gothic legends or tribal sagas) forced them to move south and east, where they settled just north of the Black Sea.^[28] However, this legend is not supported by archaeological evidence so its validity is disputable. Historian Malcolm Todd contends that while this large en masse migration is possible, the movement of Gothic peoples south-east was probably the result of warrior bands moving closer to the wealth of Ukraine and the cities of the Black Sea coast. Perhaps what is most notable about the Gothic people in this regard was that by the middle of the third century AD, they were "the most formidable military power beyond the lower Danube frontier".^[29][30]

Contact with Rome

Throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries there were numerous conflicts and exchanges of varying types between the Goths and their neighbors. After the Romans withdrew from the territory of Dacia, the local population was subjected to constant invasions by the migratory tribes, among the first being the Goths.

The Goths remained in Dacia until 376, when one of their leaders, Fritigern, appealed to the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube. Here, they hoped to find refuge from the Huns.^[36] Valens permitted this, as he saw in them "a splendid recruiting ground for his army".^[37] However, a famine broke out and Rome was unwilling to supply them with either the food they were promised or the land. Generally, the Goths were abused by the Romans,^[38] who began forcing the now starving Goths to trade away their children so as to stave off starvation.^[39] Open revolt ensued, leading to 6 years of plundering throughout the Balkans, the death of a Roman Emperor and a disastrous defeat of the Roman army.^[40]

The

Despite the severe consequences for Rome, Adrianople was not nearly as productive overall for the Visigoths and their gains were short-lived. Still confined to a small and relatively impoverished province of the Empire, another Roman army was being gathered against them, an army which also had amid its ranks other disaffected Goths.[45] Intense campaigns against the Visigoths followed their victory at Adrianople for upwards of three years. Approach routes across the Danube provinces were effectively sealed off by concerted Roman efforts, and while there was no decisive victory to claim, it was essentially a Roman triumph ending in a treaty in 382. The treaty struck with the Goths was to be the first foedus on imperial Roman soil. It required these semi-autonomous Germanic tribes to raise troops for the Roman army in exchange for arable land and freedom from Roman legal structures within the Empire.^[46][c] l. But in Aug 14 410 AD, they sacked Rome which caused the western roman empire to collapse

Reign of Alaric I

The new emperor, Theodosius I, made peace with the rebels, and this peace held essentially unbroken until Theodosius died in 395.^[48] In that year, the Visigoths' most famous king, Alaric I, made a bid for the throne, but controversy and intrigue erupted between the East and West, as General Stilicho tried to maintain his position in the empire.^[49] Theodosius was succeeded by his incompetent sons: Arcadius in the east and Honorius in the west. In 397, Alaric was named military commander of the eastern Illyrian prefecture by Arcadius.^[38]

Over the next 15 years, an uneasy peace was broken by occasional conflicts between Alaric and the powerful Germanic generals who commanded the Roman armies in the east and west, wielding the real power of the empire.

The Visigothic Kingdom was a Western European power in the 5th to 8th centuries, created first in Gaul, when the Romans lost their control of the western half of their empire and then in Hispania until 711. For a brief period, the Visigoths controlled the strongest kingdom in Western Europe.^[54] In response to the invasion of Roman Hispania of 409 by the Vandals, Alans, and Suebi, Honorius, the emperor in the West, enlisted the aid of the Visigoths to regain control of the territory. From 408 to 410 the Visigoths caused so much damage to Rome and the immediate periphery that nearly a decade later, the provinces in and around the city were only able to contribute one-seventh of their previous tax shares.^[55]

In 418, Honorius rewarded his Visigothic

The Visigoths' second great king, Euric, unified the various quarreling factions among the Visigoths and, in 475, concluded the peace treaty with the emperor Julius Nepos. In the treaty the emperor was called a friend (amicus) to the Visigoths, while requiring them to address him as lord (dominus).^[58] Though the emperor did not legally recognize Gothic sovereignty, according to some views^[59] under this treaty the Visigothic kingdom became an independent kingdom. Between 471 and 476, Euric captured most of southern Gaul.^[60] According to historian J. B. Bury, Euric was probably the "greatest of the Visigothic kings" for he managed to secure territorial gains denied to his predecessors and even acquired access to the Mediterranean Sea.^[61] At his death, the Visigoths were the most powerful of the successor states to the Western Roman Empire and were at the very height of their power.^[62] Not only had Euric secured significant territory, he and his son, Alaric II, who succeeded him, adopted Roman administrative and bureaucratic governance, including Rome's tax gathering policies and legal codes.^[63]

At this point, the Visigoths were also the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula, quickly crushing the Alans and forcing the Vandals into north Africa.^[64] By 500, the Visigothic Kingdom, centred at Toulouse, controlled Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis and most of Hispania with the exception of the Kingdom of the Suebi in the northwest and small areas controlled by the Basques and Cantabrians.^[65] Any survey of western Europe taken during this moment would have led one to conclude that the very future of Europe itself "depended on the Visigoths".^[66] However, in 507, the Franks under Clovis I defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Vouillé and wrested control of Aquitaine.^[67] King Alaric II was killed in battle.^[62] French national myths romanticize this moment as the time when a previously divided Gaul morphed into the united kingdom of Francia under Clovis.^[68]

Visigothic power throughout Gaul was not lost in its entirety due to the support from the powerful Ostrogothic king in Italy, Theodoric the Great, whose forces pushed Clovis I and his armies out of Visigothic territories.^[67] Theodoric the Great's assistance was not some expression of ethnic altruism, but formed part of his plan to extend his power across Spain and its associated lands.^[67]

After Alaric II's death, Visigothic nobles spirited his heir, the child-king Amalaric, first to Narbonne, which was the last Gothic outpost in Gaul, and further across the Pyrenees into Hispania. The center of Visigothic rule shifted first to Barcelona, then inland and south to Toledo.^[69] From 511 to 526, the Visigoths were ruled by Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths as de jure regent for the young Amalaric. Theodoric's death in 526, however, enabled the Visigoths to restore their royal line and re-partition the Visigothic kingdom through Amalaric, who incidentally, was more than just Alaric II's son; he was also the grandson of Theodoric the Great through his daughter Theodegotho.^[70] Amalaric reigned independently for five years.^[71] Following Amalaric's assassination in 531, another Ostrogothic ruler, Theudis took his place.^[64] For the next seventeen years, Theudis held the Visigothic throne.^[72]

Sometime in 549, the Visigoth

The last Arian Visigothic king, Liuvigild, conquered most of the northern regions (Cantabria) in 574, the Suevic kingdom in 584, and regained part of the southern areas lost to the Byzantines,^[75] which King Suintila recovered in 624.^[76] Suintila reigned until 631.^[77] Only one historical source was written between the years 625 through 711, which comes from Julian of Toledo and only deals with the years 672 and 673.^[78] Wamba was the king of the Visigoths from 672 to 680.^[78] During his reign, the Visigothic kingdom encompassed all of Hispania and part of southern Gaul known as Septimania. Wamba was succeeded by King Ervig, whose rule lasted until 687.^[79] Collins observes that "Ervig proclaimed Egica as his chosen successor" on 14 November 687.^[80] In 700, Egica's son Wittiza followed him on the throne according to the Chronica Regum Visigothorum.^[81]

The kingdom survived until 711, when King

During their long reign in Spain, the Visigoths were responsible for the only new cities founded in Western Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries. It is certain (through contemporary Spanish accounts) that they founded four: Reccopolis, Victoriacum (modern Vitoria-Gasteiz, though perhaps Iruña-Veleia), Luceo and Olite. There is also a possible 5th city ascribed to them by a later Arabic source: Baiyara (perhaps modern Montoro). All of these cities were founded for military purposes and three of them in celebration of victory. Despite the fact that the Visigoths reigned in Spain for upwards of 250 years, there are few remnants of the Gothic language borrowed into Spanish.^[87][d][e] The Visigoths as heirs of the Roman empire lost their language and intermarried with the Hispano-Roman population of Spain.^[89]

Genetics

A genetic study published in Science in March 2019 examined the remains of eight Visigoths buried at Pla de l'Horta in the 6th century. These individuals displayed genetic links to northern and central Europe.^[90]

Culture

Law

The

One of the greatest contributions of the Visigoths to family law was their protection of the property rights of married women, which was continued by Spanish law and ultimately evolved into the community property system now in force throughout the majority of western Europe.^[93]

Religion

Before the Middle Ages, the Visigoths, as well as other Germanic peoples, followed what is now referred to as Germanic paganism.^[94] While the Germanic peoples were slowly converted to Christianity by varying means, many elements of the pre-Christian culture and indigenous beliefs remained firmly in place after the conversion process, particularly in the more rural and distant regions.^[95]

The Visigoths,

While the Visigoths retained their Arian faith, the Jews were well tolerated. Previous Roman and Byzantine law determined their status, and it already sharply discriminated against them, but royal jurisdiction was in any case quite limited: local lords and populations related to Jews as they saw fit. We read of rabbis being asked by non-Jews to bless their fields, for example.^[101] Historian Jane Gerber relates that some of the Jews "held ranking posts in the government or the army; others were recruited and organized for garrison service; still others continued to hold senatorial rank".^[102] In general, then, they were well respected and well treated by the Visigothic kings, that is, until their transition from Arianism to Catholicism.^[103] Conversion to Catholicism across Visigothic society reduced much of the friction between the Visigoths and the Hispano-Roman population.^[104] However, the Visigothic conversion negatively impacted the Jews, who came under scrutiny for their religious practices.^[105]

King Reccared convened the Third Council of Toledo to settle religious disputations related to the religious conversion from Arianism to Catholicism.^[106] The discriminatory laws passed at this Council seem not to have been universally enforced, however, as indicated by several more Councils of Toledo that repeated these laws and extended their stringency. These entered canon law and became legal precedents in other parts of Europe as well. The culmination of this process occurred under King Sisibut, who officially decreed a forced Christian conversion upon all Jews residing in Spain.^[107] This mandate apparently achieved only partial success: similar decrees were repeated by later kings as central power was consolidated. These laws either prescribed forcible baptism of the Jews or forbade circumcision, Jewish rites, and the observance of the Sabbath and other festivals. Throughout the 7th century the Jews were persecuted for religious reasons, had their property confiscated, were subjected to ruinous taxes, forbidden to trade and, at times, dragged to the baptismal font. Many were obliged to accept Christianity but continued privately to observe the Jewish religion and practices.^[108] The decree of 613 set off a century of difficulty for Spanish Jewry, which was only ended by the Muslim conquest.^[g]

The political aspects of the imposition of Church power cannot be ignored in these matters. With the conversion of the Visigothic kings to Chalcedonian Christianity, the bishops increased their power, until, at the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633, they selected a king from among the royal family, a practice previously reserved for nobles. This was the same synod that spoke out against those who had been baptized but had relapsed into Judaism. As far as the Visigoths were concerned, the time for religious pluralism "was past".^[109] By the end of the 7th century, Catholic conversion made the Visigoths less distinguishable from the indigenous Roman citizens of the Iberian peninsula; when the last Visigothic strongholds fell to the Muslim armies, whose subsequent invasions transformed Spain from the beginning of the 8th century, their Gothic identity faded.^[110]

In the eighth through 11th centuries, the

During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches in the basilical or cruciform style that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas.^[112] The Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in the Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid-7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.^[113]

Reccopolis, located near the tiny modern village of

In Spain, an important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in Guadamur, in the Province of Toledo, known as the Treasure of Guarrazar. This archeological find is composed of twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with signs of Byzantine influence. According to Spanish archaeologists, this treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery.^[116] The two most important votive crowns are those of Recceswinth and of Suintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls and other precious stones.^[117] The discoverer of the second lot gave Spanish Queen Elizabeth II some of the pieces that she still had in her possession, including the crown of Suintila, this crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered.^[118] There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure.^[117]

These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of:

• National Archaeological Museum of Spain
  : six crowns, five crosses, a pendant and remnants of foil and channels (almost all of gold).
• Royal Palace of Madrid: a crown and a gold cross and a stone engraved with the Annunciation. A crown and other fragments of a tiller with a crystal ball were stolen from the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1921 and its whereabouts are still unknown.
• National Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris: three crowns, two crosses, links and gold pendants.^[119]

The aquiliform (eagle-shaped) fibulae that have been discovered in necropolises such as Duratón, Madrona or Castiltierra (cities of Segovia), are an unmistakable example of the Visigothic presence in Spain. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania.^[120]

The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptional Byzantine-style lapis lazuli inlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass.^[121][i]

See also

• Romano-Germanic culture
• Thiufa
• Goths
• Visigothic kingdom
• Visigothic art and architecture
• Visigothic script

References

Notes

Citations

1. ^ Wood 2012, p. 16.
2. ^ Heather 1998, pp. 52–57, 300–301.
3. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 843.
4. ^ Claude 1998, pp. 119–120.
5. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, pp. 91–92.
6. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 98.
7. ^ ^{a b} Christensen 2002, p. 219.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Wolfram 1988, p. 25.
9. ^ Jordanes 1915, p. 74 [XIV.82].
10. ^ ^{a b c} Wolfram 1988, p. 26.
11. ^ ^{a b} Christensen 2002, pp. 207–212.
12. ^ Heather 1998, pp. 300–301.
13. ^ Heather 1999, pp. 43–44.
14. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 24–25.
15. ^ Heather 1999, p. 75.
16. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 24.
17. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn57.
18. ^ Heather 1998, pp. 52–57, 130–178, 302–309.
19. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 22–24.
20. ^ Goffart 1983, pp. 125–126.
21. ^ Friedrich 1910, p. 14.
22. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 387–388, fn58.
23. ^ ^{a b} Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn58.
24. ^ Stevenson 1899, p. 36, fn15.
25. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 39–40.
26. ^ Todd 2000, p. 149.
27. ^ ^{a b} Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 844.
28. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 42–43.
29. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 149–150.
30. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 42–55.
31. ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 11.
32. ^ ^{a b} Todd 2000, p. 150.
33. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 150–151.
34. ^ Todd 2000, p. 151.
35. ^ Todd 2000, p. 152.
36. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 844–845.
37. ^ Fuller 1998, p. 55.
38. ^ ^{a b} Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 845.
39. ^ Durant 1950, p. 24.
40. ^ Durant 1950, pp. 24–25.
41. ^ Sarris 2002, p. 36.
42. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 178–179.
43. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 179.
44. ^ Katz 1955, pp. 88–89.
45. ^ Todd 2000, p. 154.
46. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 179–180.
47. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 180–81.
48. ^ Burns 2003, pp. 322, 374.
49. ^ Heather 2013, pp. 153–160.
50. ^ Heather 2013, pp. 183–223.
51. ^ Frassetto 2003, pp. 204–205.
52. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 214–217.
53. ^ Collins 1999, pp. 63–65.
54. ^ Williams 2004, p. 51.
55. ^ Heather 2005, p. 434.
56. ^ Sivan 1987, pp. 759–772.
57. ^ Burns 2003, p. 382.
58. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 186–187.
59. ^ Barbero & Loring 2005, p. 170.
60. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 358.
61. ^ Bury 2000, pp. 211–212.
62. ^ ^{a b} Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 846.
63. ^ Frassetto 2003, pp. 358–359.
64. ^ ^{a b c} Carr 2004, p. 421.
65. ^ Todd 2000, p. 165.
66. ^ Bury 2000, p. 213.
67. ^ ^{a b c} Frassetto 2003, p. 359.
68. ^ Heather 2013, p. 70.
69. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 243–45.
70. ^ Heather 2013, p. 93.
71. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 245.
72. ^ Heather 2013, p. 94.
73. ^ Roberts 1997, pp. 82–85.
74. ^ Roberts 1997, p. 82.
75. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 51–53.
76. ^ Arce 1999, p. 4.
77. ^ Collins 2004, p. 69.
78. ^ ^{a b} Collins 2004, p. 70.
79. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 102–104.
80. ^ Collins 2004, p. 105.
81. ^ Collins 2004, p. 109.
82. ^ Roberts 1997, pp. 96–100.
83. ^ Williams 2004, p. 60.
84. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 176.
85. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 286.
86. ^ Wolf 2014, pp. 14–15.
87. ^ Ostler 2006, p. 307.
88. ^ Todd 2000, p. 175.
89. ^ Nadeau & Barlow 2013, pp. 28–35.
90. ^ Olalde 2019.
91. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 6–8.
92. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 49.
93. ^ Coolidge 2011, pp. 17–25.
94. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 58, 66, 72–74.
95. ^ James 2009, pp. 215–225.
96. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 75–79.
97. ^ Heather 2013, p. 325.
98. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 265–269.
99. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 304.
100. ^ Mathisen & Sivan 1999, p. 40.
101. ^ Graetz 1894, p. 44.
102. ^ Gerber 1992, p. 9.
103. ^ Roth 1994, pp. 35–40.
104. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 847.
105. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 59–60.
106. ^ Collins 1999, pp. 211–212.
107. ^ Collins 2000, p. 60.
108. ^ Gonzalez-Salinero 1999, pp. 140–147.
109. ^ Lim 1999, pp. 209–210.
110. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 60–62.
111. ^ Fletcher 2006, p. 45.
112. ^ Galeano 2016.
113. ^ Salvador Conejo, Cripta visigoda de San Antolín.
114. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 55–56.
115. ^ Odobescu 1889, p. 1-100.
116. ^ Guerra, Galligaro & Perea 2007, pp. 53–74.
117. ^ ^{a b} Museo Arqueologico Nacional, "Tesoro de Guarrazar".
118. ^ Balmaseda Muncharaz 1996, p. 109.
119. ^ Bardiès-Fronty 2015, pp. 22–24.
120. ^ Bacoup 2015.
121. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, "Belt Buckle 550–600".
122. ^ Ripoll 2011, pp. 161–179.

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Visigoths.

• Lex Visigothorum
• Visigothic Symposia
• National Archaeological Museum-Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Spain