Lê dynasty

Thanh Hóa province) and give power to the scholars who did well on the official examinations. The first step on this path was to revive the examination process, which had continued sporadically in the 1450s. The first examination was held in 1463 and, as expected, the top scholars were men from elsewhere- usually from the river delta surrounding the capital, not from Thanh Hóa.^{[citation needed]}

In 1467, Lê Thánh Tông changed the name of the state to "Thiên Nam" (Heavenly South) to make the parallel position with their northern neighbor and shared classical culture more explicit.^[32]

Thánh Tông encouraged the spread of Confucian values throughout Vietnam by having "temples of literature" built in all the provinces. There, Confucius was venerated and classic works on Confucianism could be found. He also halted the building of any new Buddhist or Taoist temples and ordered that monks were not to be allowed to purchase any new land.^{[citation needed]}

Lê Thánh Tông introduced reforms designed to replace the

Ryukyuan pirates from the northeast. This was dealt with by sending additional forces to the north to fight the pirates. Thánh Tông also sent a military force to the west to subdue the Ai-lao mountain tribes that was raiding the northwest border.^{[citation needed]}

In 1469, all of Vietnam was mapped and a full census was taken, listing all the villages in the Empire. Around this time the country was divided into 13 dao (provinces). Each was administrated by a Governor, Judge, and the local army commander. The emperor Thánh Tông also ordered that a new census should be taken every six years. Other public works that were undertaken included building and repair of granaries, using the army to rebuild and repair irrigation systems after floods, and sending out doctors to areas afflicted by outbreaks of disease. Even though the emperor, at 25, was relatively young, he had already restored Vietnam's stability, which was a marked contrast from the turbulent times marking the reigns of the two emperors before him.

Article 344 of the Nguyen dynasty code and Article 305 of the Le dynasty code both forbade self-castration and castration of Vietnamese men.[35] Self-castration of Vietnamese men was banned by Lê Thánh Tông, the emperor, in 1464.^[36]

The Vietnamese under Emperor Le Thanh Tong cracked down on foreign contacts and enforced an isolationist policy. A large amount of trade between Guangdong (Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan) and Vietnam happened during this time. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in regular trade between China and Vietnam instead of being blown off course, and that they were punished after a Vietnamese crackdown on trade with foreign countries.^[37][38]

A 1499 entry in the

Kauthara (now Nha Trang) with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia.^[61][62] Lê Thánh Tông created a new province out of former Cham land and allowed ethnic Vietnamese settlers to settle it. The conquest of the Cham kingdoms started a rapid period of expansion by the Vietnamese southwards into this newly conquered land. The government used a system of land settlement called đồn điền (屯田).^{[citation needed}

]

From 1478 to 1480, Lê Thánh Tông led an expedition against the kingdoms of

Lanna.^[63] Some of the Vietnamese army had reached the kingdom of Ava.^[64] The expedition ended inconclusively, many Vietnamese soldiers died because of the hostile climate and rampant diseases;^[65] The Vietnamese forces were unable to suppressed the Laotian guerrillas, and then the Laotians were able to recaptured their capital.^[63] As the Vietnamese withdrew their army through the kingdom of Muang Phuan in December 1479, they annexed and incorporated it into Ninh Protectorate (Trấn Ninh) in 1480.^[66]

Decline of the Early period

With the death of Lê Thánh Tông, the Lê dynasty fell into a swift decline (1497–1527).

Prince Lê Tăng, the eldest of Lê Thánh Tông's 14 sons, succeeded his father as Lê Hiến Tông (黎憲宗). He was 38 years old at the time of his father's death. He was an affable, meek and mild-mannered person. Due to his short period of rule and that he didn't pass many significant reforms, his reign is considered to be an extension of Lê Thánh Tông's rule. The new emperor was known to historical annals as Lê Hiến Tông. In early 1499, several high-ranking officials including Lê Vĩnh and Lê Năng Nhượng persuaded Hiến Tông to choose an heir in order to maintain the dynasty's and the nation's security and sustainability. Hiến Tông agreed; and although the emperor had two elder sons: Lê Tuân and Lê Tuấn, Lê Thuần was designed as crown prince due to his deep interest in intellectuality and Neo-Confucianism, which caused Hiến Tông to perceive him as being far superior to his two older brothers.^[67]

Lê Hiến Tông chose his third son, Lê Túc Tông (黎肅宗) to be his successor. In 1504, Lê Hiến Tông died at 44 years old. The 17th years old Lê Thuần inherited the throne. The Confucian annalists portrayed him as a relatively good emperor who released many prisoners, stopping several construction works that posed heavy burden on his subjects, as well as reducing tributes from vassals and holding high-ranking officials in high regard. He was also said to have maintained harmony in the court and the whole country. In the other hand, the annals also recorded a revolt broke in Cao Bằng, led by Đoàn Thế Nùng against the government. Lê Thuần sent troops to Cao Bằng, defeating and killing Đoàn Thế Nùng along with 500 rebels. ^[68] However, he fell gravely ill and died just six months after assuming the throne.

Lê Uy Mục (黎威穆) was the second son of Emperor Lê Hiến Tông. In 1505, as older brother of Emperor Lê Túc Tông, he succeeded the throne, later known under posthumous name Uy Mục hoàng đế (威穆皇帝). Lê Uy Mục was portrayed by Neo-Confucianist chroniclers as being deeply contrasted to his predecessors Lê Thánh Tông, Lê Hiến Tông and Lê Túc Tông, who closely followed Neo-Confucianist principles in governing the nation.^[68] The first thing the new emperor did was to take revenge against those who had barred him from the throne by having them killed. Among his victims were the former emperor's mother – which was considered^[69] a shocking display of evil behavior. Lê Uy Mục was described by a Ming ambassador – as a cruel, sadistic, and depraved person, who wasted the court's money and finances to indulge his whims. Well aware that he was detested by his subjects, Lê Uy Mục protected himself by hiring a group of elite bodyguards to surround him at all times. Among them was Mạc Đăng Dung, who became very close to the emperor and eventually rose to the rank of general. Despite his precautions, in 1509 a cousin, whom Lê Uy Mục had put in prison, escaped and plotted with court insiders to assassinate the emperor. The assassination succeeded and the killer proclaimed himself emperor under the name Lê Tương Dực.

Trần Cảo, a northerner who claimed to be an heir of the House of Trần.^[71] His rule ended in 1516 when a group officials and generals led by Trịnh Duy Sản stormed the palace and killed him.^[72][73]

Crisis and revolts

At 14 years old, nephew of Lê Tương Dực, prince Lê Y, was enthroned as the new emperor Lê Chiêu Tông (ruled 1516–1522).^[27] Factions within the court vied with one another for control of the government. One powerful and growing faction was led by Mạc Đăng Dung, a military leader who rose through the ranks.^[74] His growing power was resented by the leaders of two noble families in Vietnam: the Nguyễn, under Nguyễn Hoàng Dụ and the Trịnh, under Trịnh Duy Đại and Trịnh Duy Sản. After several years of increasing tension, the Nguyễn and the Trịnh left the capital Hanoi (then called Đông Đô) and fled south, with the Emperor "under their protection".

In 1524, Mạc Đăng Dung forces captured and executed the leaders of the revolt (Nguyễn Hoàng Du, Trịnh Duy Đại, and Trịnh Duy Sản). The revolt by the Trịnh clan and the Nguyễn clan was defeated for the moment. This was the start of a civil war with Mạc Đăng Dung and his supporters on one side and the Trịnh and the Nguyễn on the other side.

Thanh Hóa Province

, the ancestral home to the Trịnh and the Nguyễn, was the battle ground between the two sides. After several years of warfare, Emperor Lê Chiêu Tông was assassinated in 1522 by Mạc Đăng Dung's supporters. Not long after, the leaders of the Nguyễn and the Trịnh were executed. Mạc Đăng Dung was now the most powerful man in Vietnam.

Usurpation of Mạc Đăng Dung

Main articles: Mạc dynasty and Mạc Đăng Dung

The degenerated Lê dynasty, which endured under six rulers between 1497 and 1527, in the end was no longer able to maintain control over the northern part of the country, much less the new territories to the south. The weakening of the monarchy created a vacuum that the various noble families of the aristocracy were eager to fill. Soon after Lê Chiêu Tông fled south with the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in 1522, Mạc Đăng Dung proclaimed the Emperor's younger brother, Lê Xuân, as the new Emperor under the name Lê Cung Hoàng. In reality, the new Emperor had no power. Three years after Mạc's forces killed his older brother Lê Chiêu Tông, was pressured from Mạc Đăng Dung, in Bắc Sứ garden, Lê Cung Hoàng hanged himself on 18 June 1527. Mạc Đăng Dung, being a scholar-official who had effectively controlled the Lê for a decade, murdered all the Lê imperial family member then proclaimed himself the new Emperor of Vietnam on 15 June 1527, ending (so he thought) the Lê dynasty (see Mạc dynasty for more details).

Mạc Đăng Dung's seizure of the throne prompted other families of the aristocracy, notably the Nguyễn and Trịnh, to rush to the support of the Lê loyalists. With the usurpation of the throne, the civil war broke out anew. Again the Nguyễn and the Trịnh gathered an army and fought against Mạc Đăng Dung, this time under the leadership of Nguyễn Kim and Trịnh Kiểm. The Trịnh and the Nguyễn were nominally fighting on behalf of the Lê emperor but in reality, for their own power.

Southern and Northern Dynasties (1533–1597)

Main articles:

Southern and Northern Dynasties and Lê–Mạc War

The Lê loyalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the Imperial family, escaped to Muang Phuan (today Laos). Marquis of An Thanh Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. Subsequently, Nguyễn Kim returned to Đại Việt and led the Lê loyalists in a sixty-year-long civil war. In 1536 and 1537, Nguyên Hòa sent two envoys to Beijing to ask the Jiajing Emperor of the Ming dynasty to send an army to fight against the Mạc to restore the Lê dynasty.^[75] Many Ming officials like Mao Bowen showed strong supports for the Lê loyalists and urged Jiajing Emperor for prepare a military campaign.^[76] The Ming Emperor agreed.^[77] In 1527, the Vũ Văn clan in Hà Giang and northern Hưng Hóa rebelled against Mạc Đăng Dung and set up their own government. Vu Van Uyen and his family rules were called Bầu lords. In 1534, after Nguyễn Kim forces recaptured Thanh Hóa, Vũ Văn Uyên declared allied with Lê loyalists and Ming army to fought against the Mạc dynasty.^[78] But Mạc Đăng Dung himself in 1540 went and surrendered the Ming army, wished for peace. Mạc Đăng Dung ceded the northeast Vietnamese coastal to the Ming dynasty for exchanging that the Ming dynasty would never invade Vietnam again.^[79] The Chinese now recognized both Mạc and Lê legitimacy over Đại Việt and withdrew their army.^[80] Bầu Lords showed strong support for the Lê dynasty and refused to accept Trịnh family at the early stage of Trịnh–Nguyễn War. Later, they cooperated with the Trịnh. Bầu Lords lasted for nearly 200 years from 1527 to 1699.

In 1542, Lê army from Muang Phuan recaptured

Northern and Southern dynasties

.

In 1545, Nguyễn Kim was poisoned by Dương Chấp Nhất, a surrendered general of the Mạc dynasty. The power of imperial court was then passed to Nguyễn Kim's son-in-law

Cao Bằng Province allying with the Ming dynasty of China

as a tributary nation against the Lê dynasty.

Restored Lê (1533–1789)

Ming China

in 1597.

In 1597, the Ming dynasty recognized the legitimacy of the Lê monarch.

better source needed

]

The Ming loyalist Chinese pirate

Đồng Nai, which had been newly acquired from the Khmers. Duong's followers named their settlement as "Minh Huong", to recall their allegiance to the Ming dynasty.^[92]

Trịnh–Nguyễn contention

Main articles:

Partition of Vietnam. ^{[citation needed}

]

While the Trịnh ruled over a much more populous territory, the Nguyễn had several advantages. First, they were on the defensive and as such were more motivated to fight. Second, the Nguyễn were able to take advantage of their contacts with the Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to purchase advanced European weapons and hire European military experts in fortifications. Third, the geography was favorable to them, as the flat plains of the North suitable for large organized armies ended at Nguyễn-controlled territory; the mountains of the central highlands reach almost to the sea.^[93]

After the first campaign, the Nguyễn built two massive fortified lines which stretched a few miles from the sea to the central highlands. The walls were built north of

Kievit, Nachtegaels and Woekende Book were defeated at sea by the Nguyễn fleet with their Chinese style galleys.^{[95][96][97][98][99]} Trịnh Tráng staged yet another offensive in 1648 but at the battle of Truong Duc, the Trịnh army was again badly beaten by the Nguyễn.^[93]

The new Lê emperor died around this time, perhaps as a result of the defeat. This now left the door open for the Nguyễn to finally go on the offensive. The Nguyễn launched their own invasion of northern Vietnam in 1653. The Nguyễn army went north and defeated the weakened Trịnh army, capturing

Nghệ An Province. Under the leadership of Trịnh Tráng's successor the capable Trịnh Tạc however, the northern army managed to defeat the Nguyễn army. The Nguyễn were also further weakened by a division between their two top generals who refused to cooperate with each other. In 1656 the Nguyễn army was driven back all the way to their original territories. Trịnh Tạc tried to break the walls of the Nguyễn in 1661 but this attack, like so many before it, failed.

.

The stalemate between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn lords that began at the end of the 17th century did not, however, mark the beginning of a period of peace and prosperity. Instead the decades of continual warfare between the two families had left the ruists and peasantry in a weakened state, the victim of taxes levied to support the courts and their military adventures. Having to meet their tax obligations had forced many peasants off the land and facilitated the acquisition of large tracts by a few wealthy landowners, nobles, and scholar—officials. Because scholar—officials were exempted from having to pay a land tax, the more land they acquired, the greater was the burden that fell on those peasants who had been able to retain their land. In addition, the peasantry faced new taxes on staple items such as charcoal, salt, silk, and cinnamon, and on commercial activities such as fishing and mining. The disparate condition of the economy led to neglect of the extensive network of irrigation systems as well.^{[citation needed]} As they fell into disrepair, disastrous flooding and famine resulted, unleashing great numbers of starving and landless people to wander aimlessly about the countryside. The widespread suffering in North Vietnam led to numerous peasant revolts between 1730 and 1770, notable the peasant rebellion of Nguyễn Hữu Cầu from 1748 to 1751. Although the uprisings took place throughout the country, they were essentially local phenomena, breaking out spontaneously from similar local causes. The occasional coordination between and among local movements did not result in any national organization or leadership. Moreover, most of the uprisings were conservative, in that the leaders supported the restoration of the Lê dynasty. They did, however, put forward demands for land reform, more equitable taxes, and rice for all.

Landless peasants accounted for most of the initial support for the various rebellions, but they were often joined later by craftsmen, fishermen, miners, and traders, who had been taxed out of their occupations. Some of these movements enjoyed limited success for a short time, but it was not until 1771 that any of the peasant revolts had a lasting national impact.^{[citation needed]}

Dissatisfaction against two ruling families Trịnh and Nguyễn spread throughout the country. In 1771, three brothers

In 1782, Trịnh Sâm died and passed the throne to his 5-year-old son Trịnh Cán instead of his 19-year-old son Trịnh Tông, who was demoted after his failed coup d'état attempt in 1780. Trịnh Sâm assigned Hoàng Tố Lý (also known as Hoàng Đình Bảo) as Cán's regent. Trịnh Tông allied with the Three Prefectures Army (Vietnamese: Tam phủ quân, chữ Hán: 三府軍) to overthrow Trịnh Cán and kill Hoàng Tố Lý. The army then released the emperor's grandson Lê Duy Kỳ (also known as Lê Duy Khiêm) from imprisonment and forced the emperor to appoint him as the next successor. Trịnh Tông feared that army's power would grew stronger. He secretly ordered governors of the Four Provinces (Kinh Bắc, Sơn Nam, Hải Dương, Sơn Tây) to march into the capital and dismiss the Three Prefectures Army. However the plan was discovered by the army and Trịnh Tông had to cancel it.

Hoàng Tố Lý's subordinate Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, after hearing about Tố Lý's death, took refuge in Tây Sơn.

In 1786, king of Tây Sơn

After Tây Sơn's withdrawal, members of Trịnh clan, namely Trịnh Lệ and Trịnh Bồng, along with their supporters marched into Thăng Long and demanded Chiêu Thống to reinstall Trịnh lord. Chiêu Thống, whose father was killed by Trịnh Sâm, reluctantly agreed and assigned Trịnh Bồng as Prince of Yến Đô (Vietnamese: Yến Đô vương, chữ Hán: 晏都王). Emperor Chiêu Thống then sent a secret order to Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh to come and save him. In 1787, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh marched North, defeated Trịnh Bồng and his supporters, ended the 242 years rule of Trịnh clan.

In late 1787, Nguyễn Huệ, no longer served under Nguyễn Nhạc, sent

Lê Chiêu Thống sent envoy to the Imperial court of the Qing Empire to ask for aid against the Tây Sơn. The Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Empire under the pretense of restoring Lê dynasty dispatched a large force of 200,000 soldiers, to invade Northern Vietnam, captured the capital Thăng Long.^{[citation needed]}

At the beginning of the war, Nguyễn Huệ's troops retreated to the South and refused to engage the Qing army. He raised a large army of his own and defeated the invader in the Lunar New year Eve of 1789. Chiêu Thống and the imperial family fled north into China, never to return. The Lê dynasty finally ended after ruling Vietnam for 356 years. He went to

• 
  Vietnamese people in 1645 through a Japanese painting.
• 
  A Vietnamese lady in Northern Vietnam, 1600s painting.
• 
  Southern Vietnamese
• 
  The Vietnamese hunters (Hmong ethnic) in Lê dynasty
• 
  Đại Việt delegates under Lê dynasty to Qing China in 1750s (source:Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute).

The Vietnamese civilians in Lê dynasty

The custom of Vietnamese woman and civil mandarin of the Lê dynasty in 18th century, from Portraits of Periodical Offering.

Introduction of Christianity

European missionaries had occasionally visited Vietnam for short periods of time, with little impact, beginning in the early sixteenth century.

continued to be used by the court and the bureaucracy.

The French later supported the use of chữ Quốc ngữ, which, because of its simplicity, led to a high degree of literacy and a flourishing of Vietnamese literature. After being expelled from Vietnam, Rhodes spent the next thirty years seeking support for his missionary work from the Vatican and the French

Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as making several more trips to Vietnam. However, since 1910, Latinized chữ Quốc ngữ was adopted by the French governor as the main writing system of Vietnam,^[120] while chữ Hán and chữ Nôm fell into decline. Vietnamese Christianity developed and became stronger before it was cracked down on by Emperor Minh Mạng of the Nguyễn dynasty

in the 1820s.

Science and Philosophy

The Lê period was the continuously flourishing era of Vietnamese scientific thought and Confucianism scholarship.

Neo-Confucianist scholar. Lê Quý Đôn was a poet, encyclopedist, and government official, author of the geography book Phủ biên tạp lục. Hải Thượng Lãn Ông was a famous Vietnamese doctor and pharmacist with his full collection 28-volumes Hải Thượng y tông tâm lĩnh about traditional Vietnamese medicine. Matchlock firearms technology also spread from Mughal Empire

to Đại Việt in 1516, and was adopted by the Lê army by the 1530s.

Literature and arts

Written Chinese was the predominant writing language in Vietnam throughout the Lê dynasty, although written vernacular Vietnamese using chữ Nôm became increasingly popular in the 17th century.

• 
  Woodcut paintings "Thánh Cung vạn tuế" ("Long live his Imperial Majesty") from the 18th-century

  Nghệ An

  .
• 
  Ceramic stoneware vase, fifteenth century
• 
  Statue of

  Bắc Ninh Province

  .
• 
  Wooden art pieces of the seventeenth century.
• 
  Nghê (mythological beast) figurines, crimson and gilded wood, eighteenth century.
• 
  Nghê decorate in seventeenth century.
• 
  Dragon of the Later Lê dynasty.
• 
  Buddhanandi statue of the Lê dynasty.
• 
  Ceramic Lion bush, sixteenth century.
• 
  Imperial dish of the Lê dynasty.
• 
  Horse figure, 1720.
• 
  Celadon dish from Chu Đậu, 15th century.
• 
  The Lacquer wood painting at Vua Rộc temple, dedicated to general Đoàn Thượng Công of

  Thái Bình Province

  , 18th century AD.
• 
  17th-century Đông Hồ woodcut painting depicts Cá chép (Carp) displays in National Museum of Fine Arts
• 
  17th-century Đông Hồ woodcut painting depicts "Social commentary: Đánh ghen (Jealousy fighting)" in National Museum of Fine Arts
• 
  17th-century Hàng Trống woodcut painting depicts Five Tigers "Ngũ Hổ" displays in National Museum of Fine Arts

Education and imperial examination system

In late 1426, Lê Lợi held a small Confucian examination in Đông Kinh, graduated 30 tiến sĩ. From 1431, the court annually held Provincial and metropolitan exams were organized in three sessions. The first session took place in every province, consisted of three questions on the examinee's interpretation of the Four Books, and four on the Classics corpus. Everyone who passed the first session were called Sinh đồ and Hương cống. The second session took place in the capital one year later, and consisted of a discursive essay, a based Tang poetry, five critical judgments, and one in the style of an edict, an announcement and a memorial. Three days after that, the third session was held by the emperor, consisting of five essays on the Classics, historiography, and contemporary affairs.

From 1486, every mandarin candidates must participated both first and second session to approve the chain. The Le's examination system reflected the

During the period from 1426 to 1527, the Lê dynasty held 26 Imperial examinations in the capital, graduated 989 tiến sĩ and 20 trạng nguyên.^[123] By the 1750s, Neo-Confucianism were declining, the imperial examinations began having surplus graduates, downgrading quality of jinshi and mandarin, corruptions, the court prefer children of noble families to be mandarins that take check, thus made the downfall of Confucian examination system in Vietnam in the late 18th century until the established of Nguyễn dynasty.^[124]

Scholars and administrators who graduated from the imperial examination system during the Lê dynasty include Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm, Nguyễn Thị Duệ, Phùng Khắc Khoan, Lê Quý Đôn, Lương Thế Vinh, and Nguyễn Đăng Đạo [zh].

Foreign relations

China

In 1428,

Vietnamese historiography notes that contact between Vietnam and the Holy See or Vatican was established during the reign of emperor Lê Thế Tông (1572–1599) through a diplomacy letter in Classical Chinese that is held in a Vatican library in the modern day.^[127]

The seventeenth century was also a period in which European missionaries and merchants became a serious factor in Vietnamese court life and politics. Although both had arrived by the early sixteenth century, neither foreign merchants nor missionaries had much impact on Vietnam before the seventeenth century. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French had all established trading posts in

Before 1527, the Imperial court restricted people from foreign trade, mainly focused on agriculture and the local market trade. The period from 1505 to 1527 was politically unstable which disrupted the economy. There were a series of severe famines in Hải Dương prefecture and Kinh Bắc prefecture (Bắc Ninh, Bắc Giang) that occurred in 1517 to 1521 during the reign of Lê Tương Dực.^[128] The 16th century political crisis caused severe damage to Vietnam's agriculture and conscription was required by incessant military campaigns; this was compounded by natural disasters, largely contributed to regular crop failures. The number of landless peasants grew quickly, causing a disproportionate surplus of unemployed labourers in Northern Vietnam. After Mạc Đăng Dung gained power in 1527, he sought to restore the economy by encouraging these unemployed peasants into the city and factories, pursuing massive handicraft and industrial manufacture as well as sea trading. This caused a shift in the economy from one mainly on farming to sea trading from the Red River Delta on the Eastern coast.^[129]

Vietnamese merchants and sailors formed together and built medium-size ships in Hai Mon port (now

In contrast to the overpopulation of the Red River Delta, the Thuan Hoa and Quang Nam region were not as dense. Vietnamese people had begun settling in the conquered Cham region at least since the 15th century. After Nguyễn Hoàng was appointed as governor of the southern provinces in 1572, millions migrated south, resulting in new cities and harbors along the coastline. For centuries the Nguyễn dynasty's economy mostly depended on handicraft and industrial manufacture but also international trade.^[130] Until the later 18th century, due to an epidemic, severe flooding in the Red River Delta, the immense corruption of the government and the rise of the Tây Sơn rebellion in Southern Vietnam that later spread to the entire country, devastated most of the economy and international trading, it played an important role in the collapse of the dynasty.

Đông Kinh and urban life

Đông Kinh (present-day Hanoi) has been the capital of Vietnam since the 11th century. During the Later Lê dynasty it was divided into 13 districts and 239 wards (with 36 main business-trading wards) and communes.

The prosperity during the Le dynasty was described through the urbanization in Tonkin through Western narratives: "...Cachao (Đông Kinh) probably had 200,000 houses. The city size was some larger than some of the largest cities in Europe but similar in size to other major Asian cities. It lies along the Red river...there are 36 stone-paved major streets, many foreigners such as Chinese, Japanese, English held their business companies, factories and stores here...the Emperor has three small but magnificent palaces, mostly built by red wood and terracotta bricks, surrounded by 15-feet height wall, and its main gate never opens expect when the Emperor wants to go outside. The Trinh lord and his families live in the 30-meter high Ngũ Long castle, near Tạ Vọng lake, which can be seen at its highest from the Red river..."[135]^{[failed verification]}

In 1612, the Joseon army encountered a Vietnamese merchant ship from Tonkin wrecked in Jeju Island which carried a large heap of treasure and money. The Koreans killed all the sailors, looted the treasures on board and then falsely reported the ship "was a pirate ship".^[136]

In 1637, the Dutch successfully established commercial and diplomatic relations with Tonkin and maintained their trading station in Đông Kinh until 1700. The lucrative Dutch ‘Vietnamese-silk-for-Japanese-silver trade‘ later also attracted the English and the French to Tonkin in 1672 and early 1682 respectively. The British imported Vietnamese silk around the 1670s, but not regularly. The city had a Chinatown, as well as factories owned by the Dutch and English companies along the Red river.^[137]

However, by the last quarter of the 17th century, Tonkin was no longer a profitable trading place. Vietnamese silk no longer reaped a handsome profit in Japan and Vietnamese ceramics proved unmarketable in the

• 
  Đông Kinh (Hanoi) seen from the Red River, c. 18th century.
• 
  Confucian class and chess playing house in Tonkin, c. 18th century.
• 
  Two women and a child in Hanoi, c. 18th century.

Hội An

The area of the

In the 18th century, Hội An was considered by Chinese and Japanese merchants to be the best destination for trading in all of Southeast Asia, even Asia.^[citation needed] Trading activities and handicraft manufacturing had been shifted from Tonkin to Hội An.^[129] The city also rose to prominence as a powerful and exclusive trade conduit between Europe, China, India, and Japan, especially for the ceramic industry. Shipwreck discoveries have shown that Vietnamese and Asian ceramics were transported from Hội An to as far as Sinai, Egypt.^[143]

Hội An's importance waned sharply at the end of the 18th century because of the collapse of Nguyễn rule (due to the

Beginning in the early 17th century, colonization of the area by

In 1698,

List of emperors

Emperors of the Initial Period (Lê Sơ) from 1428 to 1527

	Temple name	Posthumous name	Personal name	Lineage	Reign	Era name	Tomb	Events
	Thái Tổ (太祖)	Thống Thiên Khải Vận Thánh Đức Thần Công Duệ Văn Anh Vũ Khoan Minh Dũng Trí Hoàng Nghĩa Chí Minh Đại Hiếu Cao Hoàng đế (統天啟運聖德神功睿文英武寬明勇智弘義至明大孝高皇帝)	Lê Lợi (黎利)	Son of Lê Khoáng, Head of Lam Sơn [vi] Circuit.	1429–1433	Thuận Thiên (順天)	Vĩnh Lăng Mausoleum, Lam Kinh	Founder of the Later Lê dynasty. Rebelled against Ming rule in 1418. Enthroned as Emperor of Đại Việt in 1428. Re-conquered Cao Bằng, Thái Nguyên and Lai Châu from local chieftains.
	Thái Tông (太宗)	Kế Thiên Thể Đạo Hiển Đức Thánh Công Khâm Minh Văn Tư Anh Duệ Triết Chiêu Hiến Kiến Trung Văn Hoàng đế (繼天體道顯德功欽明文思英睿仁哲昭憲建中文皇帝)	Lê Nguyên Long (黎元龍)	Son of Emperor Thái Tổ	1433–42 (2)	Thiệu Bình (紹平 1434 – 1439), Đại Bảo (大寶 1440 – 1442)	Hựu Lăng, Lam Kinh	Campaigns against Mystery of Lệ Chi Viên ).
	Nhân Tông (仁宗)	Khâm Văn Nhân Hiếu Tuyên Minh Thông Duệ Tuyên Hoàng đế (欽文仁孝宣明聰睿宣皇帝)	Lê Bang Cơ (黎邦基)	Son of Emperor Thái Tông	1442–1459 (3)	Thái Hòa (太和 1443 – 1453), Diên Ninh (延寧 1454 – 1459)	Mục Lăng	Empress Tuyên Từ ruled as regent and was de-facto ruler from 1444 to 1454. War with Champa in 1446. Both the Empress Regent and Nhân Tông were murdered by Duke Lê Nghi Dân.
	Lê Nghi Dân (黎宜民)	Thiên Hưng Đế (天興帝)		Son of Emperor Thái Tông	1459-1460	Thiên Hưng (天興 1459-1460)		Deposed and killed by the ministers.
	Thánh Tông (聖宗)	Sùng Thiên Quảng Vận Cao Minh Quang Chính Chí Đức Đại Công Thánh Văn Thần Vũ Đạt Hiếu Thuần Hoàng đế (崇天廣運高明光正至德大功聖文神武達孝淳皇帝)	Lê Tư Thành (黎思誠)	Son of Emperor Thái Tông	1460–97 (4)	Quang Thuận (光順 1460–1469), Hồng Đức (洪德 1470–1497)	Chiêu Lăng	Conquered Champa and captured its capital Vijaya (Champa) in 1471. Victorious wars with Muang Phuan and Lan Xang (1478-1480) . Major administrative, education, economic and legal reforms. Hồng Đức era was viewed as the apex of the House of Lê.
	Hiến Tông (憲宗)	Thể Thiên Ngưng Đạo Mậu Đức Chí Nhân Chiêu Văn Thiệu Vũ Tuyên Triết Khâm Thành Chương Hiếu Duệ Hoàng Đế (體天凝道懋德至仁昭文紹武宣哲欽聖彰孝睿皇帝)	Lê Tranh	Son of Emperor Thánh Tông	1497–1504 (5)	Cảnh Thống (景統)	Dụ Lăng	Maintained the works of the Hồng Đức era
	Túc Tông (肅宗)	Chiêu Nghĩa Hiển Nhân Ôn Cung Uyên Mặc Hiếu Doãn Cung Khâm Hoàng đế (昭義顯仁溫恭淵默惇孝允恭欽皇帝)	Lê Thuần (黎㵮)	Son of Emperor Hiến Tông	1504–1505 (6)	Tự Hoàng (嗣皇)	Kính Lăng	Reigned for six months (July 1504 - January 1505) before dying of illness
	Lê Uy Mục	Mẫn Lệ công (愍厲公)	Lê Tuấn (黎濬)	Son of Emperor Hiến Tông	1504–1509 (7)	Đoan Khánh (端慶)	An Lăng	Rule is deeply unpopular. Labelled by the Ming dynasty as the Evil king/Quỷ vương (鬼王)
	Lê Tương Dực	Linh Ẩn vương (靈隱王)	Lê Oanh (黎瀠)	Son of Prince Lê Tân of Emperor Thánh Tông	1509–1516 (8)	Hồng Thuận (洪順)	Nguyên Lăng	Political and education reforms. Late rule marred by various rebellions (Trần Tuân, 1511; Trần Cảo, 1516) and political crises. Assassinated by general Trịnh Duy Sản .
	Lê Quang Trị Lê Bảng Lê Do			Descendents of Lê Thái Tông	1516 1518-1519			Lê Quang Trị was installed amidst a political dispute, he kept the throne for only three days in May 1516 and was killed by general Trịnh Duy Đại. From September 1518 to March 1519, Lê Bảng was installed and killed by the warlord Trịnh Tuy. Lê Do was installed by Trịnh Tuy, he was killed by Chiêu Tông-Mặc Đăng Dung forces in July 1519.
	Chiêu Tông (昭宗)	Thần Hoàng đế (神皇帝)	Lê Y (黎椅)	Son of Lê Sùng, brother of Emperor Tương Dực	1517–1522 (9)	Quang Thiệu (光紹)	Vĩnh Hưng Lăng	Rule plagued by civil war. Murdered by Mạc Đăng Dung in 1525
	Cung Hoàng (恭皇)	Cung Hoàng đế (恭皇帝)	Lê Xuân (黎椿)	Son of Lê Sùng, brother of Emperor Tương Dực	1522–1527 (10)	Thống Nguyên (統元)	Hoa Dương lăng	Propped up by Mạc Đăng Dung, forced to hang himself.

Emperors of the Restored Period (Lê Trung Hưng) from 1533 to 1789

	Temple name	Posthumous name	Personal name	Lineage	Reign	Era name	Tomb	Events
	Trang Tông (莊宗)	Dụ Hoàng đế (裕皇帝)	Lê Ninh (黎寧)	Son of Emperor Chiêu Tông	1533–1548 (11)	Nguyên Hòa (元和)	Cảnh lăng	Escaped from house arrest to Laos in 1527. In 1533, Lê loyalists led by Lê-Mạc war . Chiêu Tông ruled from his court in Vạn Lại, Thanh Hóa.
	Trung Tông (中宗)	Vũ Hoàng đế (武皇帝)	Lê Huyên (黎暄)	Son of Emperor Trang Tông	1548–1556 (12)	Thuận Bình (顺平)	Diên lăng	Vạn Lại court with Quảng Nam from Mạc in 1553. Trung Tông died without a heir.
	Anh Tông (英宗)	Tuấn Hoàng đế (峻皇帝)	Lê Duy Bang (黎維邦)	Descendent of Lê Trừ, the second brother of Lê Lợi	1556–1573 (13)	Thiên Hựu (天祐 1557), Chính Trị (正治 1558 – 1571), Hồng Phúc (洪福 1572)	Bố Vệ lăng	Vạn Lại court. Nguyễn clan led by Nguyễn Hoàng granted their fiefs in Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam. War of succession between Trịnh Kiểm's son Trịnh Tùng and Trịnh Cối. Anh Tông plotted against the Trịnh and was killed by Trịnh Tùng.
	Thế Tông (世宗)	Tích Thuần Cương Chính Dũng Quả Nghị Hoàng đế (積純剛正勇果毅皇帝)	Lê Duy Đàm (黎維潭)	Son Emperor Anh Tông	1573–99 (14)	Gia Thái (嘉泰 1573 – 1577), Quang Hưng (光興 1578 – 1599)	Hoa Nhạc lăng	Installed by Trịnh Tùng when he was 5 years old. Recaptured Đông Kinh from the Mạc dynasty in 1592. Trịnh Tùng was de-facto ruler.
	Kính Tông (敬宗)	Hiển Nhân Dụ Khánh Tuy Phúc Huệ Hoàng đế (显仁裕庆绥福惠皇帝),[148] Giản Huy Hoàng đế (簡輝皇帝)	Lê Duy Tân (黎維新)	Son of Emperor Thế Tông	1599–1619 (15)	Thận Đức (慎德 1600 – 1601), Hoằng Định (弘定 1601 – 1619)		Deposed and forced to commit suicide by Trịnh Tùng following a court plot.
	Thần Tông (神宗)	Uyên Hoàng đế (淵皇帝)	Lê Duy Kỳ (黎維祺)	Son of Emperor Kính Tông and Empress Ngọc Trinh, Trịnh Tùng's daughter.	1619–1643, 1649–1662 (16)	Vĩnh Tộ (永祚 9/1619 – 1628), Đức Long (德隆 1629 – 1634), Dương Hòa (陽和 1635 – 9/1643), Khánh Đức (慶德 10/1649 – 1652), Thịnh Đức (盛德 1653 – 1657), Vĩnh Thọ (永壽 1658 – 8/1662), Vạn Khánh (萬慶 9/1662)	Quần Ngọc lăng	First Trịnh-Nguyễn War broke out in 1627. Became Emperor regent in 1643 when his son Lê Duy Hựu was enthroned. Second rule from 1649 after his son's death. Trịnh Lords were de-facto rulers.
	Chân Tông (真宗)	Thuận Hoàng đế (順皇帝)	Lê Duy Hựu (黎維祐)	Son of Emperor Thần Tông	1643–1649 (17)	Phúc Thái (福泰)	Hoa Phố lăng	Trịnh Tráng was de-facto ruler.
	Huyền Tông (玄宗)	Mục Hoàng đế (穆皇帝)	Lê Duy Vũ (黎維禑)	Son of Emperor Thần Tông	1662–1671 (18)	Cảnh Trị (景治)	An Lăng	Married to Empress Ngọc Áng, Trịnh Tạc's daughter. Died at age 17 without a heir. Trịnh Tạc was de-facto ruler.
	Gia Tông (嘉宗)	Khoan Minh Mẫn Đạt Anh Quả Huy Nhu Khắc Nhân Đốc Nghĩa Mỹ Hoàng đế (寬明敏達英果徽柔克仁篤義美皇帝)	Lê Duy Cối (黎維禬)	Son of Emperor Thần Tông	1671–1675 (19)	Dương Đức (陽德 1672 – 1674), Đức Nguyên (德元 1674 – 1675)	Phúc An lăng	Adopted by Trịnh Tạc at early age. Enthroned when he was 10 and died of cholera 5 years later. Trịnh Tạc was de-facto ruler.
	Hy Tông (熙宗)	Chương Hoàng đế (章皇帝)	Lê Duy Cáp (黎維祫)	Son of Emperor Thần Tông	1675–1705 (20)	Vĩnh Trị (永治 1676 – 1680), Chính Hoà (正和 1680 – 1705)	Phú lăng	War with the Nguyễn Lords in Cochinchina over, the last remnants of Mạc dynasty and Bầu lords were conquered. Trịnh Tạc and Trịnh Căn were de-facto rulers.
	Dụ Tông (裕宗)	Thuần Chính Huy Nhu Ôn Giản Từ Tường Khoan Huệ Tôn Mẫu Hòa Hoàng đế (純正徽柔溫簡慈祥寬惠遜敏和皇帝)	Lê Duy Đường (黎維禟)	Son of Emperor Hy Tông	1705–1729 (21)	Vĩnh Thịnh (永盛 1706 – 1719), Bảo Thái (保泰 1720 – 1729)	Kim Thạch	The Lê court recognized the Manchu Qing legitimates over China, Kangxi Emperor sent envoy and gave the title An Nam quốc vương 安南国王 (King of Annam) for Dụ Tông in 1718.[149] Trịnh Lords were de-facto rulers. Deposed by Trịnh Cương.
			Lê Duy Phường (黎維祊)	Son of Emperor Dụ Tông and Empress Ngọc Trang, aunt of Trịnh Cương.	1732–1735 (22)	Vĩnh Khánh (永慶)	Kim Lũ	Deposed by and killed by Trịnh Giang. Posthumously named by the condescending title Hôn Đức công (Duke of Ambiguous Virtues)
	Thuần Tông (純宗)	Giản Hoàng đế (簡皇帝)	Lê Duy Tường (黎維祥)	Son of Emperor Dụ Tông	1732–1735 (23)	Long Đức (龍德)	Bình Ngô Lăng	Trịnh Giang was de-facto ruler
	Ý Tông (懿宗)	Ôn Gia Trang Túc Khải Túy Minh Mẫn Khoan Hồng Uyên Duệ Huy Hoàng đế (溫嘉莊肅愷悌通敏寬洪淵睿徽皇帝)	Lê Duy Thận (黎維祳)	Son of Emperor Thuần Tông	1735–1740 (24)	Vĩnh Hựu (永佑)	Phù Lê lăng	Forced to abdicate by Lord Thái thượng hoàng (retired emperor) of Vietnam.
	Hiển Tông (顯宗)	Vĩnh Hoàng đế (永皇帝)	Lê Duy Diêu (黎維祧)	Son of Emperor Thuần Tông	1740–1786 (25)	Cảnh Hưng (景興)	Bàn Thạch lăng	Rebellions by Prince Nguyễn Huệ began northern campaign, captured Thăng Long in 1786.
		Mẫn Hoàng đế (愍皇帝)	Lê Duy Kỳ (黎維祁)	Son of Crown Prince Lê Duy Vĩ of Emperor Hiển Tông	1786–1789 (26)	Chiêu Thống (昭統)	Hoa Dương lăng	Enthroned under Nguyễn Huệ's supervision. Defeated pro-Trịnh forces with help of warlord Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh. A second Tây Sơn northern campaign captured Thăng Long in 1787. Chiêu Thống sought help from the Qing dynasty but was defeated in the Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa in 1789. Went to asylum and died in Beijing in 1793.

See also

• List of Vietnamese dynasties

Notes

Citations