Liberty ship
 , one of four surviving Liberty ships, photographed in 2000 | |
| Class overview | |
|---|---|
| Name | Liberty ship |
| Builders | 18 shipyards in the United States |
| Cost | US$2 million ($39 million in 2023) per ship[1] |
| Planned | 2,751 |
| Completed | 2,710 |
| Active | 2 (Traveling museum ships) |
| Preserved | 4 |
| General characteristics | |
| Class and type | Cargo ship |
| Tonnage | 10,856 t (10,685 long tons) deadweight (DWT)[2] |
| Displacement | 14,245 long tons (14,474 t)[2] |
| Length | 441 ft 6 in (134.57 m) |
| Beam | 56 ft 10.75 in (17.3 m) |
| Draft | 27 ft 9.25 in (8.5 m) |
| Propulsion |
|
| Speed | 11–11.5 knots (20.4–21.3 km/h; 12.7–13.2 mph) |
| Range | 20,000 nmi (37,000 km; 23,000 mi) |
| Complement | |
| Armament | Stern-mounted 4-in (102 mm) deck gun for use against surfaced submarines, variety of anti-aircraft guns |
Liberty ships were a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II under the Emergency Shipbuilding Program. Though British in concept,[4] the design was adopted by the United States for its simple, low-cost construction. Mass-produced on an unprecedented scale, the Liberty ship came to symbolize U.S. wartime industrial output.[5]
The class was developed to meet British orders for transports to replace ships that had been lost. Eighteen American shipyards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945 (an average of three ships every two days),[6] easily the largest number of ships ever produced to a single design.
Their production mirrored (albeit on a much larger scale) the manufacture of "Hog Islander" and similar standardized ship types during World War I. The immensity of the effort, the number of ships built, the role of female workers in their construction, and the survival of some far longer than their original five-year design life combine to make them the subject of much continued interest.
History
Design
In 1936, the American Merchant Marine Act was passed to subsidize the annual construction of 50 commercial merchant vessels which could be used in wartime by the United States Navy as naval auxiliaries, crewed by U.S. Merchant Mariners. The number was doubled in 1939 and again in 1940 to 200 ships a year. Ship types included two tankers and three types of merchant vessel, all to be powered by steam turbines. Limited industrial capacity, especially for reduction gears, meant that relatively few of these ships were built.
In 1940 the British government ordered 60 Ocean-class freighters from American yards to replace war losses and boost the merchant fleet. These were simple but fairly large (for the time) with a single 2,500 horsepower (1,900 kW) compound steam engine of obsolete but reliable design. Britain specified coal-fired plants, because it then had extensive coal mines and no significant domestic oil production.
The design was modified by the
On 27 March 1941, the number of
Variants
The basic EC2-S-C1 cargo design was modified during construction into three major variants with the same basic dimensions and slight variance in tonnage. One variant, with basically the same features but different type numbers, had four rather than five
In the detailed Federal Register publication of the post war prices of Maritime Commission types the Liberty variants are noted as:[9]
- EC2-S-AW1
- Collier (All given names of coal seams as SS Banner Seam, Beckley Seam and Bon Air Seam)
- Z-EC2-S-C2
- Tank carrier (four holds, kingposts) – example SS Frederic C. Howe[a]
- Z-ET1-S-C3
- SS Carl R. Gray. Eighteen were commissioned into USN in 1943 as the Armadillo-class tanker
- Z-EC2-S-C5
- Boxed aircraft transport (four holds, kingposts) – example SS Charles A. Draper.[b] Post war 16 of these Liberty ships were converted 1954–1958 into Guardian-class radar picket ship
In preparation for the Normandy landings and afterward to support the rapid expansion of logistical transport ashore a modification was made to make standard Liberty vessels more suitable for mass transport of vehicles and in records are seen as "MT" for Motor Transport vessels. As MTs four holds were loaded with vehicles while the fifth was modified to house the drivers and assistants.[10]
The modifications into troop transports also were not given special type designations.
Propulsion
By 1941, the
Construction
The ships were constructed of sections that were welded together. This is similar to the technique used by
- The construction of a Liberty ship at the Bethlehem-Fairfield Shipyards, Baltimore, Maryland, in March/April 1943
Day 2 : Laying of the keel plates
Day 6 : Bulkheads and girders below the second deck are in place
Day 10 : Lower deck being completed and the upper deck amidship erected
Day 14 : Upper deck erected and mast houses and the after-deck house in place
Day 24 : Ship ready for launching
The ships initially had a poor public image owing to their appearance. In a speech announcing the emergency shipbuilding program President
The first ships required about 230 days to build (Patrick Henry took 244 days), but the median production time per ship dropped to 39 days by 1943.[14] The record was set by SS Robert E. Peary, which was launched 4 days and 151⁄2 hours after the keel had been laid, although this publicity stunt was not repeated: in fact much fitting-out and other work remained to be done after the Peary was launched. The ships were made assembly-line style, from prefabricated sections. In 1943 three Liberty ships were completed daily. They were usually named after famous Americans, starting with the signatories of the Declaration of Independence. 17 of the Liberty Ships were named in honor of outstanding African-Americans. The first, in honor of Booker T. Washington, was christened by Marian Anderson in 1942, and the SS Harriet Tubman, recognizing the only woman on the list, was christened on 3 June 1944.[15]
Any group that raised war bonds worth $2 million could propose a name. Most bore the names of deceased people. The only living namesake was Francis J. O'Gara, the purser of SS Jean Nicolet, who was thought to have been killed in a submarine attack, but in fact survived the war in a Japanese prisoner of war camp. Not named after people were: SS Stage Door Canteen, named after the USO club in New York; and SS U.S.O., named after the United Service Organizations (USO).[16]
Another notable Liberty ship was
The wreck of
Six Liberty ships were converted at
The last new-build Liberty ship constructed was SS Albert M. Boe, launched on 26 September 1945 and delivered on 30 October 1945. She was named after the chief engineer of a United States Army freighter who had stayed below decks to shut down his engines after a 13 April 1945 explosion, an act that won him a posthumous Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal.[20] In 1950, a "new" liberty ship was constructed by Industriale Maritime SpA, Genoa, Italy by using the bow section of Bert Williams and the stern section of Nathaniel Bacon, both of which had been wrecked. The new ship was named SS Boccadasse, and served until scrapped in 1962.[21][22]
Several designs of mass-produced petroleum tanker were also produced, the most numerous being the T2 tanker series, with about 490 built between 1942 and the end of 1945.
Problems
Hull cracks
Early Liberty ships suffered hull and deck cracks, and a few were lost due to such structural defects. During World War II there were nearly 1,500 instances of significant
The
Service
Use as troopships
In September 1943 strategic plans and shortage of more suitable hulls required that Liberty ships be pressed into emergency use as troop transports with about 225 eventually converted for this purpose.[29] The first general conversions were hastily undertaken by the War Shipping Administration (WSA) so that the ships could join convoys on the way to North Africa for Operation Torch.[4] Even earlier the Southwest Pacific Area command's U.S. Army Services of Supply had converted at least one, William Ellery Channing, in Australia into an assault troop carrier with landing craft (LCIs and LCVs) and troops with the ship being reconverted for cargo after the Navy was given exclusive responsibility for amphibious assault operations.[30] Others in the Southwest Pacific were turned into makeshift troop transports for New Guinea operations by installing field kitchens on deck, latrines aft between #4 and #5 hatches flushed by hoses attached to fire hydrants and about 900 troops sleeping on deck or in 'tween deck spaces.[31] While most of the Liberty ships converted were intended to carry no more than 550 troops, thirty-three were converted to transport 1,600 on shorter voyages from mainland U.S. ports to Alaska, Hawaii and the Caribbean.[32]
The issue of hull cracks caused concern with the United States Coast Guard, which recommended that Liberty ships be withdrawn from troop carrying in February 1944 although military commitments required their continued use.[4] The more direct problem was the general unsuitability of the ships as troop transports, particularly with the hasty conversions in 1943, that generated considerable complaints regarding poor mess, food and water storage, sanitation, heating / ventilation and a lack of medical facilities.[4] After the Allied victory in North Africa, about 250 Liberty ships were engaged in transporting prisoners of war to the United States.[32] By November 1943 the Army's Chief of Transportation, Maj. Gen. Charles P. Gross, and WSA, whose agents operated the ships, reached agreement on improvements, but operational requirements forced an increase of the maximum number of troops transported in a Liberty from 350 to 500.[4] The increase in production of more suitable vessels did allow for returning the hastily converted Liberty ships to cargo-only operations by May 1944.[4] Despite complaints, reservations, Navy requesting its personnel not travel aboard Liberty troopers and even Senate comment, the military necessities required use of the ships. The number of troops was increased to 550 on 200 Liberty ships for redeployment to the Pacific. The need for the troopship conversions persisted into the immediate postwar period in order to return troops from overseas as quickly as possible.[4]
Combat
On 27 September 1942 the
On 10 March 1943 SS Lawton B. Evans became the only ship to survive an attack by the German submarine U-221.[34] The following year from 22 to 30 January 1944, Lawton B. Evans was involved in the Battle of Anzio in Italy. It was under repeated bombardment from shore batteries and aircraft for eight days. It endured a prolonged barrage of shelling, machine-gun fire and bombs. The ship shot down five German planes.[35]
After the war
More than 2,400 Liberty ships survived the war. Of these, 835 made up the postwar cargo fleet. Greek entrepreneurs bought 526 ships and Italians bought 98. Shipping magnates including
Some Liberty ships were lost after the war to naval mines that were inadequately cleared. Pierre Gibault was scrapped after hitting a mine in a previously cleared area off the Greek island of Kythira in June 1945,[39] and the same month saw Colin P. Kelly Jnr take mortal damage from a mine hit off the Belgian port of Ostend.[40] In August 1945, William J. Palmer was carrying horses from New York to Trieste when she rolled over and sank 15 minutes after hitting a mine a few miles from destination. All crew members, and six horses were saved.[41] Nathaniel Bacon ran into a minefield off Civitavecchia, Italy in December 1945, caught fire, was beached, and broke in two; the larger section was welded onto another Liberty half hull to make a new ship 30 feet longer, named Boccadasse.[42]
As late as December 1947, Robert Dale Owen, renamed Kalliopi and sailing under the Greek flag, broke in three and sank in the northern Adriatic Sea after hitting a mine.[43] Other Liberty ships lost to mines after the end of the war include John Woolman, Calvin Coolidge, Cyrus Adler, and Lord Delaware.[44]
On April 16, 1947, a Liberty ship owned by the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique called the Grandcamp (originally built as the SS Benjamin R. Curtis) docked in Texas City, Texas to load a cargo of 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate fertilizer. A fire broke out on board which eventually caused the entire ammonium nitrate cargo to explode. The massive explosion levelled Texas City and caused fires which detonated more ammonium nitrate in a nearby ship and warehouse. It was one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in US history. This incident is known as the Texas City disaster today.[45]
On December 21, 1952, the SS Quartette, a 422-foot-long (129 m) Liberty Ship of 7,198
In 1953, the
Between 1955 and 1959, 16 former Liberty ships were repurchased by the United States Navy and converted to the Guardian-class radar picket ships for the Atlantic and Pacific Barrier.
In the 1960s, three Liberty ships and two Victory ships were reactivated and converted to
USS Liberty was a Belmont-class technical research ship (electronic spy ship) that was attacked by Israel Defense Forces during the 1967 Six-Day War. She was built and served in World War II as SS Simmons Victory, as a Victory cargo ship.
, delivered 1943 to USSR, sailed until 1974From 1946 to 1963, the Pacific Ready Reserve Fleet – Columbia River Group, retained as many as 500 ships.[55]
In 1946, Liberty ships were mothballed in the Hudson River Reserve Fleet near Tarrytown, New York. At its peak in 1965, 189 hulls were stored there. The last two were sold for scrap to Spain in 1971 and the reserve permanently shut down.[56][57]
(ex-SS Arthur M. Huddell) in June 2010Only two operational Liberty ships,
Liberty ships continue to serve in a "less than whole" function many decades after their launching. In
Fifty-eight Liberty ships were lengthened by 70 feet (21 m) starting in 1958,[63] giving them additional carrying capacity at a small additional cost.[63][citation needed] The bridges of most of these were also enclosed in the mid-1960s in accordance with a design by naval architect Ion Livas.
In the 1950s, the
In 2011, the
Shipyards
Liberty ships were built at eighteen shipyards located along the U.S. Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts:[69]
- Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding, Mobile, Alabama
- Bethlehem-Fairfield Shipyard, Baltimore, Maryland
- California Shipbuilding Corp., Los Angeles, California
- Delta Shipbuilding Corp., New Orleans, Louisiana
- J.A. Jones Construction Company
- Kaiser Company, Vancouver, Washington
- Marinship, Sausalito, California
- New England Shipbuilding Corporation, South Portland, Maine The East and West Yards were both on the same 60 acres (240,000 m2) of shipyard. However, the two yards commenced operations under different titles and until early 1942 were separated by rigid legal conditions.
- East Yard
- West Yard
- North Carolina Shipbuilding Company, Wilmington, North Carolina
- Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation, Portland, Oregon
- Permanente Metals Corporation, Richmond, California (a Kaiser facility)
- Kaiser Richmond No. 1 Yard
- Kaiser Richmond No. 2 Yard
- St. Johns River Shipbuilding, Jacksonville, Florida
- Southeastern Shipbuilding Corporation, Savannah, Georgia[70]
- Todd Houston Shipbuilding, Houston, Texas
- Walsh-Kaiser Co., Inc., Providence, Rhode Island
- Small yard:
- Rheem Manufacturing Company built one ship the SS William Coddington.[71]
Survivors
There are four surviving Liberty Ships.
- SS John W. Brown – operational and in use as a museum ship in Baltimore Harbor, Maryland
- SS Jeremiah O'Brien – operational and in use as a museum ship, docked at Pier 45, San Francisco, California
- SS Arthur M. Huddell – transferred to Greece in 2008 and renamed Hellas Liberty. Restored for use as a maritime museum in Piraeus harbor, Greece.
- SS Albert M. Boe – The last Liberty ship built, sold to private ownership in 1964 and renamed Star of Kodiak. Used as a fish cannery ship. She is currently landlocked but remains the headquarters of Trident Seafoods in Kodiak, Alaska.
Ships in class
- EC2-S-C1 dry cargo ships for Merchant Navy
- Converted to troopships 220 ships
- Converted to ammunition ships
- EC2-S-C1 Acubens-class general stores issue ship11 cargo ships for US Navy
- EC2-S-C1 Crater-class cargo ship 65 cargo ships for US Navy
- Chourre-class aircraft repair ship two US Navy ships (1944-1945)
- Luzon-class Internal Combustion repair ship 12 conversions for US Navy
- Xanthus-class repair ship five ships (1944-1946)
- American Mariner-class ship, US Coast Guard training (1943-1950), Radar ship (1950-1964)
- Operation Ivory Soap six conversions to US Army Air Force aircraft repair and maintenance ships in 1944
- EC2-S-22a, conversions to remote control minesweeper
- Z-ET1-S-C3, 18 Armadillo-class tankers for US Navy's fuel oil, or diesel or gasoline, Merchant Navy and US Navy[72]
- Z-EC2-S-C2, eight Tank carriers, with larger hatches and a 30 tons crane. Built by J.A.Jones Construction in 1943 for Merchant Navy[73]
- EC2-S-AW1 Collier, for coal transport, 24 built by Delta SB.[74]
- Z-EC2-S-C5 Boxed aircraft transport with large larger hatches and 30 tons crane, 28 built by J.A.Jones Construction[75]
- Indus-class net cargo ships, USS Indus support of Net laying ships.(1943-1946)
- Post war
- Guardian-class radar picket ships 16 converted for US Navy use in 1955
- USS Sturgis converted to the first floating nuclear power plant(1967-1976)
- EC2-S-8a SS Benjamin Chew converted to a high-speed cargo ship in 1956
- EC2-M-8b, SS Thomas Nelson converted to a high-speed cargo ship in 1956
- Jumbo Liberty ship, in the 1950s some Liberty ships were lengthened in Japan. The SS Henry M. Stephens became the SS Andros Fairplay.[76]
- LNG, SS Thomas F. Bayard to SS Ultragaz São Paulo in 1952, scrapped in 1972.[77]
- SS William P McArthur was converted to a floating crane in 1966.[78]
- SS Arthur M. Huddell converted to a pipe carrier in 1944, then cable carrier for AT&T in 1956, then and a museum ship in Greece in 2008.
- Floating dock conversions: SS Joe C. S. Blackburn in 1968 and S Jane Addams in 1947.
See also
- Allied technological cooperation during World War II
- Empire ships
- Hog Islander, WW I-designed American cargo ship design that served in WW II
- List of Liberty ships
- Fort ship
- Park ship
- Type C2 ship
- Type T2 tanker
- U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
- Victory ship
- World War II United States Merchant Navy
Notes
References
- ^ Wise & Baron 2004, p. 140
- ^ a b Davies 2004, p. 23.
- ^ "Liberty Ships Design". globalsecurity.org. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ LCCN 99490905.
- ISBN 9781477315149.
mass-produced during the war, the Liberty Ship had become a symbol of the miracle of American production
- ^ "Liberty Ships built by the United States Maritime Commission in World War II". usmm.org. American Merchant Marine at War. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
(2,710 ships were completed, as one burned at the dock.)
- ^ "Dorington Court (1939)". Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2015.
- ^ "Capacity of One Liberty Ship". Usmm.org. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ a b c "Federal Register" (PDF). 11 (161). U.S. Government. 17 August 1946: 8974. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Larson, Harold (1945). The Army's Cargo Fleet In World War II (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Transportation, Army Service Forces, U. S. Army. pp. 75–77. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- ^ Live (the program of Project Liberty Ship provided for cruises of the Liberty ship SS John W. Brown, 2013 edition, claims both that the engine weighed 135 tons (p. 10) fully assembled and that it weighed 140 tons (p. 11).
- ^ Live (program of Project Liberty Ship provided for cruises of the Liberty ship SS John W. Brown, 2013 edition, p. 10.
- ^ Herman 2012, pp. 135–136, 178–180.
- ^ Davies 2004.
- ^ "African-Americans in the U.S. Merchant Marine and U.S. Maritime Service during World War II". Usmm.org. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ Reading 1: Liberty Ships National Park Service Cultural Resources.
- ^ "Report on the Wreck of the SS Richard Montgomery" (PDF). Webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ "Little Boy and Fat Man". Atomic Heritage Foundation. 23 July 2014. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
Little Boy yield: 15 kilotons / Fat Man yield: 21 kilotons
- ^ "The Hoverfly in CBI, Carl Warren Weidenburner". Archived from the original on 22 October 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ "SS Albert M. Boe". history.navy.mil. 2004. Archived from the original on 7 October 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ "Liberty Ships – B". Mariners. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- ^ "Liberty Ships – N–O". Mariners. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- ^ "John P Gaines". Armed-guard.com. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ X-FEM for Crack Propagation – Introduction Article which includes clear photograph of a ship broken in half.
- PMID 18956802.
- ^ "Constance Tipper". G.eng.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ Kobayashi, Hideo (n.d.). Case Details - Brittle fracture of Liberty Ships. Failure Knowledge Database (Report). Association for the Study of Failure.
The brittle fractures that occurred in the Liberty Ships were caused by low notch toughness at low temperature of steel at welded joint, which started at weld cracks or stress concentration points of the structure. External forces or residual stress due to welding progress the fracture. Almost all accidents by brittle fractures occurred in winter (low temperature). In some cases, residual stress is main cause of fracture.
- ^ "Victory Ship Design". GlobalSecurity.org. 22 July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 November 2012.
- LCCN 55060003.
- ^ Masterson, Dr. James R. (1949). U. S. Army Transportation In The Southwest Pacific Area 1941–1947. Washington, D. C.: Transportation Unit, Historical Division, Special Staff, U. S. Army. pp. 570–571.
- LCCN 56060000.
- ^ LCCN 99490905.
- ^ Sawyer & Mitchell 1985, pp. 13, 141–142.
- ^ "Lawton B. Evans (American Steam merchant) – Ships hit by German U-boats during WWII". Gudmundur Helgason uboat.net. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ "Pers-68-MH MM/822 62 83" (PDF). Bureau Of Naval Personnel. 24 June 1944. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ "John Fredriksen". Norsk Biografisk Lexsikon (in Norwegian). 25 February 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
- ^ The Shipping World and Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering News, 1952, p. 148.
- ^ a b c Elphick 2006, p. 401
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 309.
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 166.
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 271.
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 108.
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 402.
- ^ Elphick 2006, p. 325.
- ^ "Texas City Disaster Report".
- ^ "Papahānaumokuākea Expedition 2007: Liberty Ship SS Quartette". Sanctuaries.noaa.gov. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
- ^ "Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument: Liberty Ship SS Quartette". Papahanaumokuakea.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- ^ "Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument: Pearl and Hermes Atoll". Papahanaumokuakea.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- ^ Department of Agriculture Appropriations for 1961. 1960. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Maritime Administration. "Samuel R. Aitken". Ship History Database. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ Maritime Administration Vessel Status Card. "Robert W. Hart". Ship History Database. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ Maritime Administration Vessel Status Card. "J. Howland Gardner". Ship History Database. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ Maritime Administration Vessel Status Card. "Iran Victory". Ship History Database. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ Maritime Administration Vessel Status Card. "Simmons Victory". Ship History Database. U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ "Tongue Point Navy Ship Yard". Archived from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "Hudson River National Defense Reserve Fleet". Navalmarinearchive.com. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
- ^ Image: Mothball Fleet of WWII Liberty Ships in Hudson River off Jones Point 1957 Picture of mothballed liberty ships
- ^ Walker, Ashley (Historic American Engineering Record) (2009). "Operation "Pluto" – Arthur M. Huddell, James River Reserve Fleet, Newport News, VA". Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "The Hellas Liberty Project". Archived from the original on 3 March 2009.
- ^ "Did You Know: Liberty Ships Still Afloat in Portland". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
- ^ Adams, Rod (1 November 1995). "Army Nuclear Power Plants". atomicinsights.com. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ "Floating Nuclear Plant Sturgis Dismantled". The Maritime Executive. 16 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ a b "The Calendar of Modern Shipping". modernshiphistory.com. 26 February 2010. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- ^ "Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council" (PDF). 12 (5). May 1955: 85. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Specht D. Evaluation of free piston-gas turbine marine propulsion machinery in GTS William Patterson (1961) SAE
- ^ "Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council" (PDF). 14 (11). November 1957: 183. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ National Research Council (U.S.) Innovation in the Maritime Industry (1979) Maritime Transportation Research Board pp. 127–131
- ^ "Postal Service Salutes U.S. Merchant Marine on Forever Stamps". Press Release. USPS. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
- ^ "WWII Construction Records, Private-Sector Shipyards that Built Ships for the U.S. Maritime Commission". Colton Company. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2007.
- ^ a b Veasey, Ashley (2009). "Liberty Shipyards: The Role of Savannah and Brunswick in the Allied Victory, 1941–1945". Georgia Historical Quarterly. 93 (2): 159–181. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ smallstatebighistory.com, SS William Coddington
- ^ T1 Tanker
- ^ usmaritimecommission.de E-EC2-S-C5 Tank carriers, Liberty ships]
- ^ usmaritimecommission.de EC2-S-AW1 Collier, Liberty ships
- ^ usmaritimecommission.de E-EC2-S-C5 Boxed aircraft transport, Liberty ships
- ^ SSAndros Fairplay
- ^ usmaritimecommission.de Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG, Liberty ships
- ^ hipbuildinghistory.com, Liberty ships
Sources
- Davies, James (2004). "Liberty Cargo Ship" (PDF). ww2ships.com. p. 23. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- Elphick, Peter (2006). Liberty: The Ships that Won the War. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1591144515.
- Herman, Arthur (2012). Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1400069644.
- Sawyer, L. A.; Mitchell, W. H. (1985). The Liberty Ships: The history of the "emergency" type cargo ships constructed in the United States during the Second World War. London: Lloyd's of London Press. ISBN 978-1850440499.
- Wise, James E.; Baron, Scott (2004). Soldiers Lost at Sea: A Chronicle of Troopship Disasters (2004 ed.). ISBN 978-1591149668. Total pages: 280
Further reading
- OCLC 45799004.
- Chiles, James R "The Ships That Broke Hilter's Blockade: How a crash effort by amateur shipbuilders turned out twenty-seven hundred Liberty freighters in four years" Winter 1988, Volume 3, Issue 3. Invention and Technology Magazine at American Heritage
- Lee, Bill "The Liberty Ships of World War II" An informative 30-page article about the ships, how they were built, and how they were used.
External links
- youtube How A Cargo Ship Helped Win WW2: The Liberty Ship Story
- SS Jeremiah O'Brien, Liberty museum ship moored at Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco, California
- Liberty Ships built by the United States Maritime Commission in World War II Archived 9 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Liberty Ships and Victory Ships, America's Lifeline in War A lesson on Liberty ships and Victory ships from the National Park Service's Teaching with Historic Places.
- Ships for Victory: J.A. Jones Construction Company and Liberty Ships in Brunswick, Georgia Eighty-four black-and-white photographs from the J.A. Jones Construction Company collection at the Brunswick-Glynn County Library that depict the company's World War II cargo ship building activities in its Brunswick, Georgia shipyard from 1943 to 1945.
- Project Liberty Ship – The Shipyards. Archived 31 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Summary of Constance Tipper's work – contains remarkable photo of fractured Liberty ship still afloat.
- Danger presented by the wreck of liberty ship SS Richard Montgomery.
- Shipbuilding under the United States Maritime Commission, 1936 to 1950
- Liberty Ships and World War II – A Role Model
- The Last Liberty Ship: Kaiser (video)
- Brunswick's "Liberty Ships" historical marker
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