Photodetector
Photodetectors, also called photosensors, are
Classification
Photodetectors can be classified based on their mechanism of operation and device structure. Here are the common classifications:
Based on mechanism of operation
Photodetectors may be classified by their mechanism for detection:[2][unreliable source?][3][4]
- Photoconductive effect: These detectors work by changing their electrical conductivity when exposed to light. The incident light generates electron-hole pairs in the material, altering its conductivity. Photoconductive detectors are typically made of semiconductors.[5]
- conduction bandof a material to free electrons in a vacuum or gas.
- Thermal: Photons cause electrons to transition to mid-gap states then decay back to lower bands, inducing phonon generation and thus heat.
- index of refractionor other polarization effects.
- Photochemical: Photons induce a chemical change in a material.
- Weak interaction effects: photons induce secondary effects such as in photon drag[6][7] detectors or gas pressure changes in Golay cells.
Photodetectors may be used in different configurations. Single sensors may detect overall light levels. A 1-D array of photodetectors, as in a
A photodetector or array is typically covered by an illumination window, sometimes having an anti-reflective coating.
Based on device structure
Based on device structure, photodetectors can be classified into the following categories:
- MSM Photodetector: A metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetector consists of a semiconductor layer sandwiched between two metal electrodes. The metal electrodes are interdigitated, forming a series of alternating fingers or grids. The semiconductor layer is typically made of materials such as The best achievable efficiency is shown by Antimony Selenide photodetectors.
- Photodiodes: Photodiodes are the most common type of photodetectors. They are semiconductor devices with a PN junction. Incident light generates electron-hole pairs in the depletion region of the junction, producing a photocurrent. Photodiodes can be further categorized into: a. PIN Photodiodes: These photodiodes have an additional intrinsic (I) region between the P and N regions, which extends the depletion region and improves the device's performance. b. Schottky Photodiodes: In Schottky photodiodes, a metal-semiconductor junction is used instead of a PN junction. They offer high-speed response and are commonly used in high-frequency applications.
- Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs): APDs are specialized photodiodes that incorporate avalanche multiplication. They have a high electric field region near the PN junction, which causes impact ionization and produces additional electron-hole pairs. This internal amplification improves the detection sensitivity. APDs are widely used in applications requiring high sensitivity, such as low-light imaging and long-distance optical communication.[9]
- Phototransistors: Phototransistors are transistors with a light-sensitive base region. Incident light causes a change in the base current, which controls the transistor's collector current. Phototransistors offer amplification and can be used in applications that require both detection and signal amplification.
- Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs): CCDs are imaging sensors composed of an array of tiny capacitors. Incident light generates charge in the capacitors, which is sequentially read and processed to form an image. CCDs are commonly used in digital cameras and scientific imaging applications.
- CMOS Image Sensors (CIS): CMOS image sensors are based on complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. They integrate photodetectors and signal processing circuitry on a single chip. CMOS image sensors have gained popularity due to their low power consumption, high integration, and compatibility with standard CMOS fabrication processes.
- Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs): PMTs are vacuum tube-based photodetectors. They consist of a photocathode that emits electrons when illuminated, followed by a series of dynodes that multiply the electron current through secondary emission. PMTs offer high sensitivity and are used in applications that require low-light detection, such as particle physics experiments and scintillation detectors.
These are some of the common photodetectors based on device structure. Each type has its own characteristics, advantages, and applications in various fields, including imaging, communication, sensing, and scientific research.
Properties
There are a number of performance metrics, also called figures of merit, by which photodetectors are characterized and compared[2][3]
- Quantum efficiency: The number of carriers (electrons or holes) generated per photon.
- Responsivity: The output current divided by total light power falling upon the photodetector.
- Noise-equivalent power: The amount of light power needed to generate a signal comparable in size to the noise of the device.
- Detectivity: The square root of the detector area divided by the noise equivalent power.
- Gain: The output current of a photodetector divided by the current directly produced by the photons incident on the detectors, i.e., the built-in current gain.
- Dark current: The current flowing through a photodetector even in the absence of light.
- Response time: The time needed for a photodetector to go from 10% to 90% of final output.
- Noise spectrum: The intrinsic noise voltage or current as a function of frequency. This can be represented in the form of a noise spectral density.
- Nonlinearity: The RF-output is limited by the nonlinearity of the photodetector[10]
- Spectral response: The response of a photodetector as a function of photon frequency.
Subtypes
Grouped by mechanism, photodetectors include the following devices:
Photoemission or photoelectric
- ionizegas atoms or molecules. Electrons and ions generated by ionization cause a current flow which can be measured.
- Photomultiplier tubes containing a photocathode which emits electrons when illuminated, the electrons are then amplified by a chain of dynodes.
- Phototubes containing a photocathode which emits electrons when illuminated, such that the tube conducts a current proportional to the light intensity.
- Microchannel plate detectors use a porous glass substrate as a mechanism for multiplying electrons. They can be used in combination with a photocathode like the photomultiplier described above, with the porous glass substrate acting as a dynode stage
Semiconductor
- complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process, and also known as CMOS image sensors, APSs are commonly used in cell phone cameras, web cameras, and some DSLRs.
- Cadmium zinc telluride radiation detectors can operate in direct-conversion (or photoconductive) mode at room temperature, unlike some other materials (particularly germanium) which require liquid nitrogen cooling. Their relative advantages include high sensitivity for x-rays and gamma-rays, due to the high atomic numbers of Cd and Te, and better energy resolution than scintillator detectors.
- cryogenic detectors.[needs update]
- HgCdTeinfrared detectors. Detection occurs when an infrared photon of sufficient energy kicks an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. Such an electron is collected by a suitable external readout integrated circuits (ROIC) and transformed into an electric signal.
- LEDs as photodiode light sensors.
- resistance according to light intensity. Normally the resistance of LDRs decreases with increasing intensity of light falling on it.[11]
- Phototransistors, which act like amplifying photodiodes.
- Pinned photodiodes, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency, and low dark current, widely used in most CCD and CMOS image sensors.[16]
- photoconductors or photodiodes, which can handle wavelengths in the visible and infrared spectral regions.
- Semiconductor detectors are employed in gamma and X-ray spectrometry and as particle detectors.[citation needed]
- electron microscopy (EDX).[17]
Photovoltaic
- when sunlight or certain kinds of light shines on them.
Thermal
- thermal camera.
- Pyroelectric detectorsdetect photons through the heat they generate and the subsequent voltage generated in pyroelectric materials.
- Thermopiles detect electromagnetic radiation through heat, then generating a voltage in thermocouples.
- Golay cells detect photons by the heat they generate in a gas-filled chamber, causing the gas to expand and deform a flexible membrane whose deflection is measured.
Photochemical
- Photoreceptor cells in the retina detect light through, for instance, a rhodopsin photon-induced chemical cascade.
- Chemical detectors, such as photographic plates, in which a silver halide molecule is split into an atom of metallic silver and a halogen atom. The photographic developer causes adjacent molecules to split similarly.
Polarization
- The photorefractive effect is used in holographic data storage.
- Polarization-sensitive photodetectors use optically anisotropic materials to detect photons of a desired linear polarization.[19]
Graphene/silicon photodetectors
A graphene/n-type silicon heterojunction has been demonstrated to exhibit strong rectifying behavior and high photoresponsivity. Graphene is coupled with silicon quantum dots (Si QDs) on top of bulk Si to form a hybrid photodetector. Si QDs cause an increase of the built-in potential of the graphene/Si Schottky junction while reducing the optical reflection of the photodetector. Both the electrical and optical contributions of Si QDs enable a superior performance of the photodetector.[20]
See also
- Lighting control system
- List of sensors
- Optoelectronics
- Photoelectric sensor
- Photosensitivity
- Readout integrated circuit
- Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector
- Photodetection
References
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- ^ a b Donati, S. "Photodetectors" (PDF). unipv.it. Prentice Hall. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
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- ^ Stillman, G. E.; Wolfe, C. M. (1977-01-01), Willardson, R. K.; Beer, Albert C. (eds.), Chapter 5 Avalanche Photodiodes**This work was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and by the Department of the Air Force., Semiconductors and Semimetals, vol. 12, Elsevier, pp. 291–393, retrieved 2023-05-11
- S2CID 9882873.
- ^ "Photo Detector Circuit". oscience.info.
- ISBN 978-0-07-162935-5. Archived from the originalon 2021-08-17. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
- ^ Paschotta, Dr. Rüdiger. "Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - photodetectors, photodiodes, phototransistors, pyroelectric photodetectors, array, powermeter, noise". www.rp-photonics.com. Retrieved 2016-05-31.
- ^ "PDA10A(-EC) Si Amplified Fixed Gain Detector User Manual" (PDF). Thorlabs. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
- ^ "DPD80 760nm Datasheet". Resolved Instruments. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
- .
- ^ "Silicon Drift Detectors" (PDF). tools.thermofisher.com. Thermo Scientific.
- ISBN 978-3-540-20113-7.
- PMID 26030655.
- S2CID 205267070.
External links
- Media related to Optical sensors at Wikimedia Commons