Roman navy

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The naval forces of the

Latin: classis, lit. 'fleet') were instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean Basin, but it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions. Throughout their history, the Romans remained a primarily land-based people and relied partially on their more nautically inclined subjects, such as the Greeks and the Egyptians, to build their ships. Because of that, the navy was never completely embraced by the Roman state, and deemed somewhat "un-Roman".[1]

In antiquity, navies and trading fleets did not have the logistical autonomy that modern ships and fleets possess, and unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy even at its height never existed as an autonomous service but operated as an adjunct to the Roman army.

During the course of the

civil wars culminating in the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire
.

During the Imperial period, the Mediterranean became largely a peaceful "Roman lake". In the absence of a maritime enemy, the navy was reduced mostly to patrol, anti-piracy and transport duties.

Roman grain imports were shipped and delivered to the capital unimpeded across the Mediterranean. The navy also manned and maintained craft on major frontier rivers such as the Rhine and the Danube
for supplying the army.

On the fringes of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against

Völkerwanderung crashed on the land frontiers of the battered Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. In the early 5th century, the Roman frontiers were breached, and barbarian kingdoms appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the Vandal Kingdom with its capital at Carthage, raised a navy of its own and raided the shores of the Mediterranean, even sacking Rome, while the diminished Roman fleets were incapable of offering any resistance. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. The navy of the surviving eastern Roman Empire is known as the Byzantine navy
.

History

Early Republic

The exact origins of the Roman fleet are obscure. A traditionally agricultural and land-based society, the Romans rarely ventured out to sea, unlike their

Etruscan neighbours.[3] There is evidence of Roman warships in the early 4th century BC, such as mention of a warship that carried an embassy to Delphi in 394 BC, but at any rate, the Roman fleet, if it existed, was negligible.[4] The traditional birth date of the Roman navy is set at ca. 311 BC, when, after the conquest of Campania, two new officials, the duumviri navales classis ornandae reficiendaeque causa, were tasked with the maintenance of a fleet.[5][6] As a result, the Republic acquired its first fleet, consisting of 20 ships, most likely triremes, with each duumvir commanding a squadron of 10 ships.[4][6] However, the Republic continued to rely mostly on her legions for expansion in Italy; the navy was most likely geared towards combating piracy and lacked experience in naval warfare, being easily defeated in 282 BC by the Tarentines.[6][7][8]

This situation continued until the First Punic War: the main task of the Roman fleet was patrolling along the Italian coast and rivers, protecting seaborne trade from piracy. Whenever larger tasks had to be undertaken, such as the naval blockade of a besieged city, the Romans called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the socii navales, to provide ships and crews.[9] It is possible that the supervision of these maritime allies was one of the duties of the four new praetores classici, who were established in 267 BC.[10]

First Punic War

The first Roman expedition outside mainland Italy was against the island of

magistrates, but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the socii, mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms.[12][13]

Three-banked ("trireme") Roman quinquereme with the Corvus boarding bridge. The use of the Corvus negated the superior Carthaginian naval expertise, and allowed the Romans to establish their naval superiority in the western Mediterranean.

Despite the massive buildup, the Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians, and could not hope to match them in

board an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. However, it is believed that the Corvus weight made the ships unstable, and could capsize a ship in rough seas.[14]

Although the first sea engagement of the war, the

Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius inflicted a severe defeat on the Carthaginians. This string of successes allowed Rome to push the war further across the sea to Africa and Carthage itself. Continued Roman success also meant that their navy gained significant experience, although it also suffered a number of catastrophic losses due to storms, while conversely, the Carthaginian navy suffered from attrition.[14]

The

Gaius Lutatius Catulus displayed superior seamanship to the Carthaginians, notably using their rams rather than the now-abandoned Corvus to achieve victory.[14]

Illyria and the Second Punic War

Roman as coin of the second half of the 3rd century BC, featuring the prow of a galley, most likely a quinquereme. Several similar issues are known, illustrating the importance of naval power during that period of Rome's history.

After the Roman victory, the balance of naval power in the Western Mediterranean had shifted from Carthage to Rome.

Illyrian Wars marked Rome's first involvement with the affairs of the Balkan peninsula.[16] Initially, in 229 BC, a fleet of 200 warships was sent against Queen Teuta, and swiftly expelled the Illyrian garrisons from the Greek coastal cities of modern-day Albania.[15] Ten years later, the Romans sent another expedition in the area against Demetrius of Pharos, who had rebuilt the Illyrian navy and engaged in piracy up into the Aegean. Demetrius was supported by Philip V of Macedon, who had grown anxious at the expansion of Roman power in Illyria.[17] The Romans were again quickly victorious and expanded their Illyrian protectorate, but the beginning of the Second Punic War
(218–201 BC) forced them to divert their resources westwards for the next decades.

Due to Rome's command of the seas,

siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC with 130 ships under Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The siege is remembered for the ingenious inventions of Archimedes, such as mirrors that burned ships or the so-called "Claw of Archimedes", which kept the besieging army at bay for two years.[20] A fleet of 160 vessels was assembled to support Scipio Africanus' army in Africa in 202 BC, and, should his expedition fail, evacuate his men. In the event, Scipio achieved a decisive victory at Zama, and the subsequent peace stripped Carthage of its fleet.[21]

Operations in the East

Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums
.

Rome was now the undisputed master of the Western Mediterranean, and turned her gaze from defeated Carthage to the

Asia Minor. A naval battle off Chios ended in a costly victory for the Pergamene–Rhodian alliance, but the Macedonian fleet lost many warships, including its flagship, a deceres.[24] Soon after, Pergamon and Rhodes appealed to Rome for help, and the Republic was drawn into the Second Macedonian War. In view of the massive Roman naval superiority, the war was fought on land, with the Macedonian fleet, already weakened at Chios, not daring to venture out of its anchorage at Demetrias.[24] After the crushing Roman victory at Cynoscephalae
, the terms imposed on Macedon were harsh, and included the complete disbandment of her navy.

Almost immediately following the defeat of

mare nostrum ("our sea") had been established. Subsequently, the Roman navy was drastically reduced, depending on its Socii navales.[25]

Late Republic

Mithridates and the pirate threat

Pompey the Great. His swift and decisive campaign against the pirates re-established Rome's control over the Mediterranean sea lanes.

In the absence of a strong naval presence however,

Tenedos.[27]

Immediately after the end of the war, a permanent force of ca. 100 vessels was established in the Aegean from the contributions of Rome's allied maritime states. Although sufficient to guard against Mithridates, this force was totally inadequate against the pirates, whose power grew rapidly.

shipments of grain and other produce from Africa and Egypt that were needed to sustain the city's population.[30]

The resulting grain shortages were a major political issue, and popular discontent threatened to become explosive. In 74 BC, with the outbreak of the

Plebeian Council, vesting Pompey with unprecedented powers and authorizing him to move against them.[32] In a massive and concerted campaign, Pompey cleared the seas of the pirates in only three months.[25][33]
Afterwards, the fleet was reduced again to policing duties against intermittent piracy.

Caesar and the Civil Wars

In 56 BC, for the first time a Roman fleet engaged in battle outside the Mediterranean. This occurred during

two invasions of Britain
.

Silver denarius struck by Sextus Pompeius in 44–43 BC, featuring a bust of Pompey the Great and a Roman warship.

The last major campaigns of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the late 3rd century AD would be in the

Marcus Agrippa: ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia, the new artificial harbor of Portus Julius built at Cumae, and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves.[39] Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the Battle of Naulochus
in 36 BC, putting an end to all Pompeian resistance.

The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672.

Octavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of

Egypt, in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships.[40]
This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling the river frontiers of Europe. It remained however engaged in active warfare in the periphery of the Empire.

Principate

Operations under Augustus

Under

Arabian peninsula
had to be abandoned.

At the other end of the Empire, in Germania, the navy played an important role in the supply and transport of the legions. In 15 BC an independent fleet was installed at the Lake Constance. Later, the generals Drusus and Tiberius used the Navy extensively, when they tried to extend the Roman frontier to the Elbe. In 12 BC Drusus ordered the construction of a fleet of 1,000 ships and sailed them along the Rhine into the North Sea.[42] The Frisii and Chauci had nothing to oppose the superior numbers, tactics and technology of the Romans. When these entered the river mouths of Weser and Ems, the local tribes had to surrender.

In 5 BC the Roman knowledge concerning the North and Baltic Sea was fairly extended during a campaign by Tiberius, reaching as far as the Elbe: Plinius describes how Roman naval formations came past Heligoland and set sail to the north-eastern coast of Denmark, and Augustus himself boasts in his Res Gestae: "My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea...".[43] The multiple naval operations north of Germania had to be abandoned after the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in the year 9 AD.

Julio-Claudian dynasty

In the years 15 and 16,

Chersonesos (see Charax, Crimea
).

It seems that under

Jewish revolt, from 66 to 70, the Romans were forced to fight Jewish ships, operating from a harbour in the area of modern Tel Aviv, on Israel's Mediterranean coast. In the meantime several flotilla engagements on the Sea of Galilee
took place.

In 68, as his reign became increasingly insecure, Nero raised

Iberian tribes, engaging in piracy. After a new fleet was built, this revolt was subdued.[48]

Flavian, Antonine and Severan dynasties

Two-banked lburnians of the Danube fleets during Trajan's Dacian Wars. Casts of reliefs from Trajan's Column, Rome.

During the

island of the Batavians, leading to the negotiation of a peace soon after.[51]

Bardo Museum, Tunisia
, 2nd century AD.

In the years 82 to 85, the Romans under

Shetland Islands.[53] There is some speculation about a Roman landing in Ireland, based on Tacitus reports about Agricola contemplating the island's conquest,[54]
but no conclusive evidence to support this theory has been found.

Under the Five Good Emperors the navy operated mainly on the rivers; so it played an important role during Trajan's conquest of Dacia and temporarily an independent fleet for the Euphrates and Tigris rivers was founded. Also during the wars against the Marcomanni confederation under Marcus Aurelius several combats took place on the Danube and the Tisza.

Under the aegis of the Severan dynasty, the only known military operations of the navy were carried out under Septimius Severus, using naval assistance on his campaigns along the Euphrates and Tigris, as well as in Scotland. Thereby Roman ships reached inter alia the Persian Gulf and the top of the British Isles.

3rd century crisis

See also: Crisis of the Third Century

As the 3rd century dawned, the Roman Empire was at its peak. In the Mediterranean, peace had reigned for over two centuries, as piracy had been wiped out and no outside naval threats occurred. As a result, complacency had set in: naval tactics and technology were neglected, and the Roman naval system had become moribund.[55] After 230 however and for fifty years, the situation changed dramatically. The so-called "Crisis of the Third Century" ushered a period of internal turmoil, and the same period saw a renewed series of seaborne assaults, which the imperial fleets proved unable to stem.[56] In the West, Picts and Irish ships raided Britain, while the Saxons raided the North Sea, forcing the Romans to abandon Frisia.[56] In the East, the Goths and other tribes from modern Ukraine raided in great numbers over the Black Sea.[57] These invasions began during the rule of Trebonianus Gallus, when for the first time Germanic tribes built up their own powerful fleet in the Black Sea. Via two surprise attacks (256) on Roman naval bases in the Caucasus and near the Danube, numerous ships fell into the hands of the Germans, whereupon the raids were extended as far as the Aegean Sea; Byzantium, Athens, Sparta and other towns were plundered and the responsible provincial fleets were heavily debilitated. It was not until the attackers made a tactical error, that their onrush could be stopped.

In 267–270 another, much fiercer series of attacks took place. A fleet composed of

Claudius II however was able to defeat them at the Battle of Naissus, ending the Gothic threat for the time being.[61]

Barbarian raids also increased along the Rhine frontier and in the

Maximinus was forced to create a completely new Northern Fleet, but in lack of training it was almost immediately destroyed in a storm.[64] Only in 293, under Caesar Constantius Chlorus did Rome regain the Gallic coast. A new fleet was constructed in order to cross the Channel,[65] and in 296, with a concentric attack on Londinium the insurgent province was retaken.[66]

Late antiquity

By the end of the 3rd century, the Roman navy had declined dramatically. Although Emperor

Geiseric in North Africa, and its raids in the Western Mediterranean, were practically uncontested.[57] Although there is some evidence of West Roman naval activity in the first half of the 5th century, this is mostly confined to troop transports and minor landing operations.[68] The historian Priscus and Sidonius Apollinaris affirm in their writings that by the mid-5th century, the Western Empire essentially lacked a war navy.[70] Matters became even worse after the disastrous failure of the fleets mobilized against the Vandals in 460 and 468, under the emperors Majorian and Anthemius
.

For the West, there would be no recovery, as the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476. In the East however, the classical naval tradition survived, and in the 6th century, a standing navy was reformed.[57] The East Roman (Byzantine) navy would remain a formidable force in the Mediterranean until the 11th century.

Organization

Crews

Roman warship on a denarius of Mark Antony

The bulk of a galley's crew was formed by the rowers, the remiges (sing. remex) or eretai (sing. eretēs) in Greek. Despite popular perceptions, the Roman fleet, and ancient fleets in general, relied throughout their existence on rowers of free status, and not on

citizen freeborn provincials (peregrini), chiefly from nations with a maritime background such as Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians and Egyptians, formed the bulk of the fleets' crews.[71][72]

During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a

auxiliaries and the legionaries.[71] Emperor Claudius first gave legal privileges to the navy's crewmen, enabling them to receive Roman citizenship after their period of service.[73] This period was initially set at a minimum of 26 years (one year more than the legions), and was later expanded to 28. Upon honorable discharge (honesta missio), the sailors received a sizable cash payment as well.[74]

As in the army, the ship's centuria was headed by a

gubernator (kybernētēs in Greek) was the helmsman or pilot, the celeusta (keleustēs in Greek) supervised the rowers, a proreta (prōreus in Greek) was the look-out stationed at the bow, a pentacontarchos was apparently a junior officer, and an iatros (Lat. medicus), the ship's doctor.[75]

Each ship was commanded by a

centuriones [classiarii] after ca. 70 AD).[80] Until the reign of Antoninus Pius, their careers were restricted to the fleet.[13] Only in the 3rd century were these officers equated to the legionary centurions in status and pay, and could henceforth be transferred to a similar position in the legions.[81]

Merchant vessels were commanded by the magister navis. If privately owned, the owner was called exercitor navis.[82] The modern term of "master" to designate a captain of a merchant vessel derives from the magister navis.

High Command

During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving magistrate or promagistrate, usually of consular or praetorian rank.[83] In the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet. However, since these men were political appointees, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. It was therefore during the Punic Wars that the separate position of praefectus classis ("fleet prefect") first appeared.[84]

Initially subordinate to the magistrate in command, after the fleet's reorganization by Augustus, the praefectus classis became a

sesterces annually, the prefects of the Classis Germanica, the Classis Britannica and later the Classis Pontica were centenarii (i.e. earning 100,000 sesterces), while the other fleet prefects were sexagenarii (i.e. they received 60,000 sesterces).[86]

Types of ships

Further information: Hellenistic-era warships and Ships of ancient Rome
Model of a Roman bireme

The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship was "long ship" (Latin: navis longa, Greek: naus makra), as opposed to the sail-driven navis oneraria (from onus, oneris: burden), a merchant vessel, or the minor craft (navigia minora) like the scapha.[87]

The navy consisted of a wide variety of different classes of warships, from heavy polyremes to light raiding and scouting vessels. Unlike the rich Hellenistic

liburnians and the hemiolia
, both swift types invented by pirates, were also adopted as scouts and light transport vessels.

During the final confrontation between Octavian and Mark Antony, Octavian's fleet was composed of quinqueremes, together with some "sixes" and many triremes and liburnians, while Antony, who had the resources of

Ptolemaic Egypt to draw upon,[88] fielded a fleet also mostly composed of quinqueremes, but with a sizeable complement of heavier warships, ranging from "sixes" to "tens" (Gk. dekērēs).[90][91] Later historical tradition made much of the prevalence of lighter and swifter vessels in Octavian's fleet,[92] with Vegetius even explicitly ascribing Octavian's victory to the liburnians.[93]

Reconstruction of a late Roman navis lusoria at Mainz

This prominence of lighter craft in the historical narrative is perhaps best explained in light of subsequent developments. After Actium, the operational landscape had changed: for the remainder of the Principate, no opponent existed to challenge Roman naval hegemony, and no massed naval confrontation was likely. The tasks at hand for the Roman navy were now the policing of the Mediterranean waterways and the border rivers, suppression of piracy, and escort duties for the grain shipments to Rome and for imperial army expeditions. Lighter ships were far better suited to these tasks, and after the reorganization of the fleet following Actium, the largest ship kept in service was a hexareme, the flagship of the Classis Misenensis. The bulk of the fleets was composed of the lighter triremes and liburnians (Latin: liburna, Greek: libyrnis), with the latter apparently providing the majority of the provincial fleets.[94] In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense.[25]

Roman ships were commonly named after gods (

Iuppiter, Minerva, Isis), mythological heroes (Hercules), geographical maritime features such as Rhenus or Oceanus, concepts such as Harmony, Peace, Loyalty, Victory (Concordia, Pax, Fides, Victoria) or after important events (Dacicus for the Trajan's Dacian Wars or Salamina for the Battle of Salamis).[95][96] They were distinguished by their figurehead (insigne or parasemum),[97] and, during the Civil Wars at least, by the paint schemes on their turrets, which varied according to each fleet.[98]

Armament and tactics

Ballistae on a Roman ship

In

ram (rostra, hence the name navis rostrata for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use, however, required a skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquereme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, and the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted ballistae and catapults.[99]

Although the ram continued to be a standard feature of all warships and ramming the standard mode of attack, these developments transformed the role of a warship: from the old "manned missile", designed to sink enemy ships, they became mobile artillery platforms, which engaged in missile exchange and

boarding actions. The Romans in particular, being initially inexperienced at sea combat, relied upon boarding actions through the use of the Corvus. Although it brought them some decisive victories, it was discontinued because it tended to unbalance the quinqueremes in high seas; two Roman fleets are recorded to have been lost during storms in the First Punic War.[100]

During the Civil Wars, a number of technical innovations, which are attributed to Agrippa,[101] took place: the harpax, a catapult-fired grappling hook, which was used to clamp onto an enemy ship, reel it in and board it, in a much more efficient way than with the old corvus, and the use of collapsible fighting towers placed one apiece bow and stern, which were used to provide the boarders with supporting fire.[102]

Fleets

Principate period

Map of the Roman fleets and major naval bases during the Principate

After the end of the civil wars, Augustus reduced and reorganized the Roman armed forces, including the navy. A large part of the fleet of Mark Antony was burned, and the rest was withdrawn to a new base at Forum Iulii (modern

Misenum and Ravenna
, supplemented by a growing number of minor ones in the provinces, which were often created on an ad hoc basis for specific campaigns. This organizational structure was maintained almost unchanged until the 4th century.

Praetorian fleets

The two major fleets were stationed in Italy and acted as a central naval reserve, directly available to the Emperor (hence the designation "praetorian"). In the absence of any naval threat, their duties mostly involved patrolling and transport duties. These were not confined to the waters around Italy, but throughout the Mediterranean. There is epigraphic evidence for the presence of sailors of the two praetorian fleets at Piraeus and Syria. These two fleets were:

Provincial fleets

The various provincial fleets were smaller than the praetorian fleets and composed mostly of lighter vessels. Nevertheless, it was these fleets that saw action, in full campaigns or raids on the periphery of the Empire.

In addition, there is significant archaeological evidence for naval activity by certain legions, which in all likelihood operated their own squadrons: legio XXII Primigenia in the Upper Rhine and Main rivers, legio X Fretensis in the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee, and several legionary squadrons in the Danube frontier.[123]

Dominate period

Our main source for the structure of the late Roman military is the Notitia Dignitatum, which corresponds to the situation of the 390s for the Eastern Empire and the 420s for the Western Empire. Notable in the Notitia is the large number of smaller squadrons that have been created, most of these fluvial and of a local operational role.

Fleets of the Danube frontier
The Upper Danube (Pannonian) limes
The Lower Danube (Moesian) limes

The Classis Pannonica and the Classis Moesica were broken up into several smaller squadrons, collectively termed Classis Histrica, authority of the frontier commanders (

Lauriacum) in Pannonia I,[127] the Classis Stradensis et Germensis, based at Margo in Moesia I,[128] and the Classis Ratianensis, in Dacia ripensis.[129]
The naval units were complemented by port garrisons and marine units, drawn from the army. In the Danube frontier these were:

Fleets in Western Europe

In the West, and in particular in

magister peditum of the West, and were:[133]
Bases and command sectors of the Saxon Shore system

It is notable that, with the exception of the praetorian fleets (whose retention in the list does not necessarily signify an active status), the old fleets of the Principate are missing. The Classis Britannica vanishes under that name after the mid-3rd century;[137] its remnants were later subsumed in the Saxon Shore system.

By the time of the Notitia Dignitatum, the Classis Germanica has ceased to exist (it is last mentioned under

Julian in 359),[138] most probably due to the collapse of the Rhine frontier after the Crossing of the Rhine by the barbarians in winter 405–406, and the Mauretanian and African fleets had been disbanded or taken over by the Vandals
.

Fleets in the Eastern Mediterranean

As far as the East is concerned, we know from legal sources that the Classis Alexandrina[139] and the Classis Seleucena[140] continued to operate, and that in ca. 400 a Classis Carpathia was detached from the Syrian fleet and based at the Aegean island of Karpathos.[141] A fleet is known to have been stationed at Constantinople itself, but no further details are known about it.[57]

Ports

Major Roman ports were:

Tactics

Dikeplous. Periplous consisted of forming a line of ships while using reserves to attack the flanks of the enemy. Dikeplous consisted of forcing a gap in the enemy line, while attacking any remaining enemy ships. Larger ships replaced triremes during the 5th century BCE. These larger ships utilized the corvus to board and attack enemy ships. There were 40 marines and a 100 legionaries on Roman ships. These soldiers, called classiarii, used overwhelming force to win battles. Many ships would be painted blue for camouflage purposes.[142][143][144][145]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Potter 2004, p. 77–78.
  2. ^ "Map of the Roman Fleet".[dead link]
  3. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 147–148.
  4. ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 149.
  5. AUC
     IX.30; XL.18,26; XLI.1
  6. ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2000, p. 96.
  7. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 150.
  8. ^ Potter 2004, p. 76.
  9. ^ a b Goldsworthy 2003, p. 34.
  10. ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000, p. 97.
  11. ^ Polybius, The Histories, I.20–21
  12. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 201.
  13. ^ a b c Webster & Elton 1998, p. 166.
  14. ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2003, p. 38.
  15. ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 167.
  16. ^ Gruen 1984, p. 359..
  17. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 167–168.
  18. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 168.
  19. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 170.
  20. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 170–171.
  21. ^ Meijer 1986, p. 173.
  22. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8
    . Plate 12.2 on p. 204.
  23. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84.
  24. ^ a b Meijer 1986, p. 175.
  25. ^ a b c Connolly 1998, p. 273.
  26. ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 92
  27. ^ a b Starr 1989, p. 62.
  28. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana, XXXVI.22
  29. ^ Plutarch, Life of Pompey, § 24
  30. ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 93
  31. ^ Goldsworthy 2007, p. 186.
  32. ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 94
  33. ^ Appian, The Mithridatic Wars, § 95–§ 96
  34. ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.9
  35. ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.13
  36. ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.14
  37. ^ Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.15
  38. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 205–206.
  39. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 206.
  40. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 207.
  41. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 208.
  42. ^ Tacitus, The Annals II.6
  43. ^ Res Gestae, 26.4
  44. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, pp. 160–161.
  45. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, p. 161.
  46. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.12
  47. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.67
  48. ^ a b Webster & Elton 1998, p. 164.
  49. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, IV.16
  50. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, IV.79
  51. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, V.23–25
  52. ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 25; 29
  53. ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 10
  54. ^ Tacitus, Agricola, 24
  55. ^ Lewis & Runyan 1985, p. 3.
  56. ^ a b Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 4
  57. ^ a b c d e Casson 1991, p. 213.
  58. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Gallienii, 13.6–7
  59. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Gallienii, 13.8–9
  60. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Divi Claudii, 6.2–4; 8.1
  61. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, I.42–45
  62. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, IX.21
  63. ^ Panegyrici Latini, 8.6
  64. ^ Panegyrici Latini, 8.12
  65. ^ Panegyrici Latini, 6.5; 8.6–8
  66. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium 9.22; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars 39.42
  67. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 145.
  68. ^ a b MacGeorge 2002, pp. 306–307.
  69. ^ Lewis & Runyan 1985, pp. 4–8.
  70. ^ MacGeorge 2002, pp. 307.
  71. ^ a b c d Casson 1991, p. 188.
  72. ^ Starr 1960, p. 75 Table 1.
  73. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 212.
  74. ^ a b Rankov 1995, p. 80.
  75. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 201–202.
  76. ^ Starr 1960, p. 39.
  77. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, pp. 165–166.
  78. ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 210.
  79. ^ Starr 1960, pp. 42–43.
  80. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 210–211.
  81. ^ Wesch-Klein 1998, p. 25.
  82. S2CID 159601227
    .
  83. ^ Rodgers 1967, p. 60.
  84. AUC
    XXVI.48; XXXVI.42
  85. ^ a b c Webster & Elton 1998, p. 165.
  86. ^ Pflaum, H.G. (1950). Les procurateurs équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain, pp. 50–53
  87. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 202–203.
  88. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 77.
  89. ^ Morrison 1995, p. 70.
  90. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana, L.23.2
  91. ^ Morrison 1995, p. 70, 77.
  92. ^ Plutarch, Antony, 62
  93. De Re Militari, IV.33
  94. ^ Casson 1995, p. 141.
  95. ^ Casson 1995, pp. 357–358.
  96. ^ Casson 1991, pp. 190–191.
  97. ^ Saddington 2007, p. 203.
  98. ^ Warry 2004, p. 183.
  99. ^ Warry 2004, p. 98.
  100. ^ Warry 2004, p. 118.
  101. ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, V.106 & V.118
  102. ^ Warry 2004, pp. 182–183.
  103. ^ Tacitus, The Annals, IV.5; Strabo, Geography, IV.1.9
  104. ^ Rankov 1995, p. 78.
  105. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, p. 158.
  106. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Commodi, 17.7
  107. ^ a b c Webster & Elton 1998, p. 159.
  108. ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 215.
  109. ^ Cleere 1977, pp. 16, 18–19.
  110. ^ a b Cleere 1977, p. 19.
  111. ^ a b c Cleere 1977, p. 16.
  112. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, p. 160.
  113. ^ Köln-Alteburg at livius.org
  114. ^ a b Webster & Elton 1998, p. 162.
  115. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, p. 162–165.
  116. ^ Webster & Elton 1998, p. 163.
  117. ^ a b Saddington 2007, p. 214.
  118. ^ Starr 1989, p. 76.
  119. ^ Tacitus, The Histories, II.83; III.47
  120. ^ Starr 1989, p. 77.
  121. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War, II.16.4
  122. ^ Codex Theodosianus, X.23.1
  123. ^ "The Fleets and Roman Border Policy". www2.rgzm.de.
  124. Pauly-Wissowa
    , XXII.1300–1301
  125. ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXII.
  126. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXIII.
  127. ^ a b c Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXIV.
  128. ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XLI.
  129. ^ a b Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XLII.
  130. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XL.
  131. ^ musculus (meaning "small mouse") was a kind of small ship
  132. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Orient., XXXIX.
  133. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XLII.
  134. Pauly-Wissowa
    , III.2639 & XXII.1300
  135. ^ Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ., XXXVIII.
  136. ^ Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 6
  137. ^ Classis Britannica at RomanBritain.org
  138. Pauly-Wissowa
    , III.2645–2646 & XXII.1300
  139. Codex Justinianus, XI.2.4
  140. Codex Justinianus, XI.13.1
  141. ^ Codex Theodosianus, XIII.5.32
  142. ISBN 978-1-4728-1090-8
    .
  143. ISBN 978-0-7391-8921-4
    .
  144. ISBN 978-18-43836-10-0
  145. ISBN 978-1-4738-1775-3
    .

References

Further reading

External links
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