Rhythm and blues
Rhythm and blues | |
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![]() Big Joe Turner in 1955 | |
Stylistic origins | |
Cultural origins | 1940s–1950s, U.S. |
Typical instruments | |
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Subgenres | |
Fusion genres | |
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Rhythm and blues, frequently abbreviated as R&B or R'n'B, is a genre of
The term "rhythm and blues" has undergone a number of shifts in meaning. In the early 1950s, it was frequently applied to blues records. Starting in the mid-1950s, after this style of music had contributed to the development of rock and roll, the term "R&B" became used in a wider context. It referred to music styles that developed from and incorporated electric blues, as well as gospel and soul music. From 1960s to 70s, some British groups were referred to and promoted as being R&B bands. By the 1970s, the term "rhythm and blues" had changed once again and was used as a blanket term for soul and funk.
In the late 1980s, a newer style of R&B developed, becoming known as "contemporary R&B". This contemporary form combines rhythm and blues with various elements of pop, soul, funk, disco, hip hop, and electronic music.
Etymology, definitions and description
Although
In the early 1950s, the term "rhythm & blues" was frequently applied to
In the commercial rhythm and blues music typical of the 1950s through the 1970s, the bands usually consisted of piano, one or two guitars, bass, drums, and saxophone. Arrangements were rehearsed to the point of effortlessness and were sometimes accompanied by background vocalists. Simple repetitive parts mesh, creating momentum and rhythmic interplay producing mellow, lilting, and often hypnotic textures while calling attention to no individual sound. While singers are emotionally engaged with the lyrics, often intensely so, they remain cool, relaxed, and in control. The bands dressed in suits, and even uniforms, a practice associated with the modern popular music that rhythm and blues performers aspired to dominate. Lyrics often seemed fatalistic, and the music typically followed predictable patterns of chords and structure.[16] R&B lyrical themes often encapsulate the African-American experience of pain and the quest for freedom and joy,[17][page needed] as well as triumphs and failures in terms of relationships, economics, and aspirations.[citation needed]
One publication of the Smithsonian Institution provided this summary of the origins of the genre in 2016.
"A distinctly African American music drawing from the deep tributaries of African American expressive culture, it is an amalgam of jump blues, big band swing, gospel, boogie, and blues that was initially developed during a thirty-year period that bridges the era of legally sanctioned racial segregation, international conflicts, and the struggle for civil rights".[2]
The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame defines some of the originators of R&B, including Joe Turner's big band, Louis Jordan's Tympany Five, James Brown and LaVern Baker. In fact, this source states that "Louis Jordan joined Turner in laying the foundation for R&B in the 1940s, cutting one swinging rhythm & blues masterpiece after another". Other artists who were "cornerstones of R&B and its transformation into rock & roll" include Etta James, Fats Domino, Roy Brown, Little Richard and Ruth Brown. The "doo wop" groups were also noteworthy, including the Orioles, the Ravens and the Dominoes.[18]
The term "rock and roll" had a strong sexual connotation in jump blues and R&B, but when DJ Alan Freed referred to rock and roll on mainstream radio in the mid-1950s, "the sexual component had been dialed down enough that it simply became an acceptable term for dancing".[19]
History
Precursors
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Louis_Jordan%2C_New_York%2C_N.Y.%2C_ca._July_1946_%28William_P._Gottlieb_04721%29.jpg/170px-Louis_Jordan%2C_New_York%2C_N.Y.%2C_ca._July_1946_%28William_P._Gottlieb_04721%29.jpg)
The
Late 1940s
R&B originated in
In 1949, the term "Rhythm and Blues" (R&B) replaced the Billboard category Harlem Hit Parade.
Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Habanera_cut-time.jpg/250px-Habanera_cut-time.jpg)
For the more than a quarter-century in which the
Harlem's got a new rhythm, man it's burning up the dance floors because it's so hot! They took a little rhumba rhythm and added boogie-woogie and now look what they got! Rhumboogie, it's Harlem's new creation with the Cuban syncopation, it's the killer! Just plant your both feet on each side. Let both your hips and shoulder glide. Then throw your body back and ride. There's nothing like rhumbaoogie, rhumboogie, boogie-woogie. In Harlem or Havana, you can kiss the old Savannah. It's a killer![38]
Although originating in the metropolis at the mouth of the Mississippi River, New Orleans blues, with its Afro-Caribbean rhythmic traits, is distinct from the sound of the Mississippi Delta blues.[39] In the late 1940s, New Orleans musicians were especially receptive to Cuban influences precisely at the time when R&B was first forming.[40] The first use of tresillo in R&B occurred in New Orleans. Robert Palmer recalls:
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Fats_Domino_1956.png/220px-Fats_Domino_1956.png)
New Orleans producer-bandleader Dave Bartholomew first employed this figure (as a saxophone-section riff) on his own 1949 disc "Country Boy" and subsequently helped make it the most over-used rhythmic pattern in 1950s rock 'n' roll. On numerous recordings by Fats Domino, Little Richard and others, Bartholomew assigned this repeating three-note pattern not just to the string bass, but also to electric guitars and even baritone sax, making for a very heavy bottom. He recalls first hearing the figure – as a bass pattern on a Cuban disc.[41]
In a 1988 interview with Palmer, Bartholomew (who had the first R&B studio band),[42] revealed how he initially superimposed tresillo over swing rhythm:
I heard the bass playing that part on a 'rumba' record. On 'Country Boy' I had my bass and drums playing a straight swing rhythm and wrote out that 'rumba' bass part for the saxes to play on top of the swing rhythm. Later, especially after rock 'n' roll came along, I made the 'rumba' bass part heavier and heavier. I'd have the string bass, an electric guitar and a baritone all in unison.[43]
Bartholomew referred to the Cuban
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Gerhard Kubik notes that with the exception of New Orleans, early blues lacked complex polyrhythms, and there was a "very specific absence of asymmetric time-line patterns (key patterns) in virtually all early-twentieth-century African American music ... only in some New Orleans genres does a hint of simple time line patterns occasionally appear in the form of transient so-called 'stomp' patterns or stop-time chorus. These do not function in the same way as African timelines."[45] In the late 1940s, this changed somewhat when the two-celled timeline structure was brought into the blues. New Orleans musicians such as Bartholomew and Longhair incorporated Cuban instruments, as well as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as "Carnival Day", (Bartholomew 1949) and "Mardi Gras In New Orleans" (Longhair 1949). While some of these early experiments were awkward fusions, the Afro-Cuban elements were eventually integrated fully into the New Orleans sound.
Robert Palmer reports that, in the 1940s, Professor Longhair listened to and played with musicians from the islands and "fell under the spell of Perez Prado's mambo records."[46] He was especially enamored with Afro-Cuban music. Michael Campbell states: "Professor Longhair's influence was ... far-reaching. In several of his early recordings, Professor Longhair blended Afro-Cuban rhythms with rhythm and blues. The most explicit is 'Longhair's Blues Rhumba,' where he overlays a straightforward blues with a clave rhythm."[47] Longhair's particular style was known locally as rumba-boogie.[48] In his "Mardi Gras in New Orleans", the pianist employs the 2–3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif in a rumba boogie "guajeo".[49]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mardi_gras_in_new_orleans.tif/lossy-page1-420px-Mardi_gras_in_new_orleans.tif.jpg)
The syncopated, but straight subdivision feel of Cuban music (as opposed to swung subdivisions) took root in New Orleans R&B during this time. Alexander Stewart states that the popular feel was passed along from "New Orleans—through James Brown's music, to the popular music of the 1970s," adding: "The singular style of rhythm & blues that emerged from New Orleans in the years after World War II played an important role in the development of funk. In a related development, the underlying rhythms of American popular music underwent a basic, yet generally unacknowledged transition from a triplet or shuffle feel to even or straight eighth notes.[50] Concerning the various funk motifs, Stewart states that this model "... is different from a time line (such as clave and tresillo) in that it is not an exact pattern, but more of a loose organizing principle."[51]
Johnny Otis released the R&B mambo "Mambo Boogie" in January 1951, featuring congas, maracas, claves, and mambo saxophone guajeos in a blues progression.[52] Ike Turner recorded "Cubano Jump" (1954) an electric guitar instrumental, which is built around several 2–3 clave figures, adopted from the mambo. The Hawketts, in "Mardi Gras Mambo" (1955) (featuring the vocals of a young Art Neville), make a clear reference to Perez Prado in their use of his trademark "Unhh!" in the break after the introduction.[53]
Ned Sublette states: "The electric blues cats were very well aware of Latin music, and there was definitely such a thing as rhumba blues; you can hear Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf playing it."[54] He also cites Otis Rush, Ike Turner and Ray Charles, as R&B artists who employed this feel.[54]
The use of clave in R&B coincided with the growing dominance of the
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Clave_in_cut-time.tiff/lossy-page1-400px-Clave_in_cut-time.tiff.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Tresillo_and_backbeat.tiff/lossy-page1-400px-Tresillo_and_backbeat.tiff.jpg)
The "Bo Diddley beat" (1955) is perhaps the first true fusion of 3–2 clave and R&B/rock 'n' roll. Bo Diddley has given different accounts of the riff's origins. Sublette asserts: "In the context of the time, and especially those maracas [heard on the record], 'Bo Diddley' has to be understood as a Latin-tinged record. A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the track sheets."[54] Johnny Otis's "Willie and the Hand Jive" (1958) is another example of this successful blend of 3–2 claves and R&B. Otis used the Cuban instruments claves and maracas on the song.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Bo-Diddley.jpg/220px-Bo-Diddley.jpg)
Afro-Cuban music was the conduit by which African American music was "re-Africanized", through the adoption of two-celled figures like clave and Afro-Cuban instruments like the
Early to mid-1950s
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Little_Richard_%281967%29.png/170px-Little_Richard_%281967%29.png)
At first, only African Americans were buying R&B discs. According to Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, sales were localized in African-American markets; there were no white sales or white radio play. During the early 1950s, more white teenagers started to become aware of R&B and began purchasing the music. For example, 40% of 1952 sales at Dolphin's of Hollywood record shop, located in an African-American area of Los Angeles, were to whites. Eventually, white teens across the country turned their musical taste toward rhythm and blues.[59]
Johnny Otis, who had signed with the Newark, New Jersey-based Savoy Records, produced many R&B hits in 1951, including "Double Crossing Blues", "Mistrustin' Blues" and "Cupid's Boogie", all of which hit number one that year. Otis scored ten top ten hits that year. Other hits include "Gee Baby", "Mambo Boogie" and "All Nite Long".[60] The Clovers, a quintet consisting of a vocal quartet with accompanying guitarist, sang a distinctive-sounding combination of blues and gospel.[61] They had the number five hit of the year with "Don't You Know I Love You" on Atlantic.[60][62][63] Also in July 1951, Cleveland, Ohio DJ Alan Freed started a late-night radio show called "The Moondog Rock Roll House Party" on WJW (850 AM).[64][65] Freed's show was sponsored by Fred Mintz, whose R&B record store had a primarily African-American clientele. Freed began referring to the rhythm and blues music he played as "rock and roll".
In 1951 Little Richard Penniman began recording for RCA Records in the jump blues style of late 1940s stars Roy Brown and Billy Wright. However, it was not until he recorded a demo in 1954 that caught the attention of Specialty Records that the world would start to hear his new uptempo funky rhythm and blues that would catapult him to fame in 1955 and help define the sound of rock 'n' roll. A rapid succession of rhythm and blues hits followed, beginning with "Tutti Frutti"[66] and "Long Tall Sally", which would influence performers such as James Brown,[67] Elvis Presley,[68] and Otis Redding.[67]
Also in 1951, the song Rocket 88 was recorded by Ike Turner and his Kings of Rhythm at a studio owned by Sam Phillips with the vocal by Jackie Brenston. This song is often cited as a precursor to rock and roll or as one of the first records in that genre.[69] In a later interview, however, Ike Turner offered this comment: "I don't think that 'Rocket 88' is rock 'n' roll. I think that 'Rocket 88' is R&B, but I think 'Rocket 88' is the cause of rock and roll existing".[70]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Ruth_Brown_cropped.jpg/190px-Ruth_Brown_cropped.jpg)
Fats Domino made the top 30 of the pop charts in 1952 and 1953, then the top 10 with "Ain't That a Shame".[76][77] Ray Charles came to national prominence in 1955 with "I Got a Woman".[78] Big Bill Broonzy said of Charles's music: "He's mixing the blues with the spirituals ... I know that's wrong."[7]: 173
In 1954
At Chess Records in the spring of 1955, Bo Diddley's debut record "Bo Diddley"/"I'm a Man" climbed to number two on the R&B charts and popularized Bo Diddley's own original rhythm and blues clave-based vamp that would become a mainstay in rock and roll.[81]
At the urging of Leonard Chess at Chess Records, Chuck Berry reworked a country fiddle tune with a long history, entitled "Ida Red".[82] The resulting "Maybellene" was not only a number three hit on the R&B charts in 1955, but also reached into the top 30 on the pop charts. Alan Freed, who had moved to the much larger market of New York City in 1954, helped the record become popular with white teenagers. Freed had been given part of the writing credit by Chess in return for his promotional activities, a common practice at the time.[83]
R&B was also a strong influence on rock and roll.[84] A 1985 article in The Wall Street Journal, titled, "Rock! It's Still Rhythm and Blues"[full citation needed] reported that the "two terms were used interchangeably" until about 1957. The other sources quoted in the article said that rock and roll combined R&B with pop and country music.[85]
Fats Domino was not convinced that there was any new genre. In 1957, he said, "What they call rock 'n' roll now is rhythm and blues. I've been playing it for 15 years in New Orleans".
Late 1950s
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Della_Reese_Jubilee_Records.jpg/100px-Della_Reese_Jubilee_Records.jpg)
In 1956, an R&B "Top Stars of '56" tour took place, with headliners Al Hibbler, Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, and Carl Perkins, whose "Blue Suede Shoes" was very popular with R&B music buyers.[88] Some of the performers completing the bill were Chuck Berry, Cathy Carr, Shirley & Lee, Della Reese, Sam "T-Bird" Jensen, the Cleftones, and the Spaniels with Illinois Jacquet's Big Rockin' Rhythm Band.[89] Cities visited by the tour included Columbia, South Carolina; Annapolis, Maryland; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Syracuse, Rochester and Buffalo, New York; and other cities.[citation needed] In Columbia, the concert ended with a near riot as Perkins began his first song as the closing act. Perkins is quoted as saying, "It was dangerous. Lot of kids got hurt". In Annapolis, 50,000 to 70,000 people tried to attend a sold-out performance with 8,000 seats. Roads were clogged for seven hours.[90] Filmmakers took advantage of the popularity of "rhythm and blues" musicians as "rock n roll" musicians beginning in 1956. Little Richard, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, Big Joe Turner, the Treniers, the Platters, and the Flamingos all made it onto the big screen.[91]
Two Elvis Presley records made the R&B top five in 1957: "
In 1959, two black-owned record labels, one of which would become hugely successful, made their debut:
The white bandleader of the Bill Black Combo, Bill Black, who had helped start Elvis Presley's career and was Elvis's bassist in the 1950s, was popular with black listeners.[citation needed] Ninety percent of his record sales were from black people, and his "Smokie, Part 2" (1959) rose to the number one position on black music charts.[citation needed] He was once told that "a lot of those stations still think you're a black group because the sound feels funky and black."[citation needed] Hi Records did not feature pictures of the Combo on early records.[99]
1960s–1970s
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Sam_Cooke_2.jpg/100px-Sam_Cooke_2.jpg)
By the 1970s, the term "rhythm and blues" was being used as a blanket term for soul, funk, and disco.[108]
1980s to present
In the late 1980s and early 1990s,
Jewish influence in the business end of rhythm and blues
According to the Jewish writer, music publishing executive, and songwriter
British rhythm and blues
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Eric_Burdon_%26_the_Animals.jpg/170px-Eric_Burdon_%26_the_Animals.jpg)
British rhythm and blues and blues rock developed in the early 1960s, largely as a response to the recordings of American artists, often brought over by African American servicemen stationed in Britain or seamen visiting ports such as London, Liverpool, Newcastle and Belfast.
The Rolling Stones became the second most popular UK band (after
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
- African-American music
- List of R&B musicians
- List of artists who reached number one on the Billboard R&B chart
- List of number-one rhythm and blues hits (United States)
- Music of the United States
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its meaning covering both sex and dancing
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Further reading
- ISBN 0-06-096049-3