Rudolf Virchow

Rudolf Virchow
Adolph Kussmaul Max Westenhöfer William Osler
Signature

Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (/ˈvɪərkoʊ, ˈfɪərxoʊ/;^[1] German: [ˈvɪʁço],^[2] also [ˈfɪʁço];^[3] 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" and as the founder of social medicine, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine".^[4][5][6]

Virchow studied medicine at the

A prolific writer, he produced more than 2000 scientific writings.[8] Cellular Pathology (1858), regarded as the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum in cell theory: Omnis cellula e cellula ("All cells come from cells"),^[9] although this concept is now widely recognized as being plagiarized from Robert Remak.^[10] He was a co-founder of Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft in 1849 and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie in 1897. He founded journals such as Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (with Benno Reinhardt in 1847, later renamed Virchows Archiv), and Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology).^[11] The latter is published by German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies which he also founded.^[12]

Virchow was the first to describe and name diseases such as

Virchow was born in Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Prussia (now Świdwin, Poland).^[17] He was the only child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (1785–1865) and Johanna Maria née Hesse (1785–1857). His father was a farmer and the city treasurer. Academically brilliant, he always topped his classes and was fluent in German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English, Arabic, French, Italian and Dutch. He progressed to the gymnasium in Köslin (now Koszalin in Poland) in 1835 with the goal of becoming a pastor. He graduated in 1839 with a thesis titled A Life Full of Work and Toil is not a Burden but a Benediction. However, he chose medicine mainly because he considered his voice too weak for preaching.^[18]

Scientific career

In 1839, he received a military fellowship, a scholarship for gifted children from poor families to become army surgeons, to study medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (now Humboldt University of Berlin).^[19] He was most influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, his doctoral advisor. Virchow defended his doctoral thesis titled De rheumate praesertim corneae (corneal manifestations of rheumatic disease) on 21 October 1843.^[20] Immediately on graduation, he became subordinate physician to Müller.^[21] But shortly after, he joined the Charité Hospital in Berlin for internship. In 1844, he was appointed as medical assistant to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which interested him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of an abstract journal that specialised in foreign work, which inspired Virchow for scientific ideas of France and England.^[22]

Virchow published his first scientific paper in 1845, giving the earliest known pathological descriptions of leukemia. He passed the medical licensure examination in 1846 and immediately succeeded Froriep as hospital prosector at the Charité. In 1847, he was appointed to his first academic position with the rank of privatdozent. Because his articles did not receive favourable attention from German editors, he founded Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (now known as Virchows Archiv) with a colleague Benno Reinhardt in 1847. He edited alone after Reinhardt's death in 1852 till his own.^[19] This journal published critical articles based on the criterion that no papers would be published that contained outdated, untested, dogmatic or speculative ideas.^[18]

Unlike his German peers, Virchow had great faith in clinical observation,

The Prussian government employed Virchow to study the typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1847–1848. It was from this medical campaign that he developed his ideas on social medicine and politics after seeing the victims and their poverty. Even though he was not particularly successful in combating the epidemic, his 190-paged Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1848 became a turning point in politics and public health in Germany.[24]^[25] He returned to Berlin on 10 March 1848, and only eight days later, a revolution broke out against the government in which he played an active part. To fight political injustice he helped found Die Medizinische Reform (Medical Reform), a weekly newspaper for promoting social medicine, in July of that year. The newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the physician is the natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him to terminate the publication in June 1849, and he was expelled from his official position.^[26]

In November 1848, he was given an academic appointment and left Berlin for the University of Würzburg to hold Germany's first chair of pathological anatomy. During his seven-year period there, he concentrated on his scientific work, including detailed studies of venous thrombosis and cellular theory. His first major work there was a six-volume Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Special Pathology and Therapeutics) published in 1854. In 1856, he returned to Berlin to become the newly created Chair for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Director of the newly built Institute for Pathology on the premises of the Charité. He held the latter post for the next 20 years.^[22][27][28]

Cell biology

Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. His most widely known scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was one of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the origin of cells was the division of pre-existing cells.^[29] He did not initially accept the evidence for cell division and believed that it occurs only in certain types of cells. When it dawned on him in 1855 that Remak might be right, he published Remak's work as his own, causing a falling-out between the two.^[30]

Virchow was particularly influenced in cellular theory by the work of

Virchow was the first to correctly link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells.[40] (His teacher Müller had proposed that cancers originated from cells, but from special cells, which he called blastema.) In 1855, he suggested that cancers arise from the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells now known as stem cells) present in mature tissue.^[41] Virchow believed that cancer is caused by severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came to be known as chronic irritation theory. He thought, rather wrongly, that the irritation spread in the form of liquid so that cancer rapidly increases.^[42] His theory was largely ignored, as he was proved wrong that it was not by liquid, but by metastasis of the already cancerous cells that cancers spread. (Metastasis was first described by Karl Thiersch in the 1860s.)^[43]

He made a crucial observation that certain cancers (

Virchow was one of the leading physicians to Kaiser Frederick III, who suffered from cancer of the larynx. While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of the entire larynx, Virchow was opposed to it because no successful operation of this kind had ever been done. The British surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed a biopsy of the Kaiser in 1887 and sent it to Virchow, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis". Virchow affirmed that the tissues were not cancerous, even after several biopsy tests.^[49][50]

The Kaiser died on 15 June 1888. The next day a post-mortem examination was performed by Virchow and his assistant. They found that the larynx was extensively damaged by ulceration, and microscopic examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma. Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Kaiser Frederick III) was published on 11 July under the lead authorship of Bergmann. But Virchow and Mackenzie were omitted, and they were particularly criticised for all their works.^[51] The arguments between them turned into a century-long controversy, resulting in Virchow being accused of misdiagnosis and malpractice. But reassessment of the diagnostic history revealed that Virchow was right in his findings and decisions. It is now believed that the Kaiser had hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a very rare form of verrucous carcinoma, and that Virchow had no way of correctly identifying it.^[49][50][52] (The cancer type was correctly identified only in 1948 by Lauren Ackerman.)^[53][54]

Inflammation

Virchow analysed the four key symptoms of inflammation (redness, swelling, heat and pain) and postulated that inflammation includes several inflammatory processes. He introduced the idea of a fifth symptom, functio laesa, the loss of function of inflamed tissues.^[55]

Anatomy

It was discovered approximately simultaneously by Virchow and

Virchow is also known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a condition of blood clotting in the blood vessels), coining the terms embolism and thrombosis.^[58] He noted that blood clots in the pulmonary artery originate first from venous thrombi, stating in 1859:

[T]he detachment of larger or smaller fragments from the end of the softening thrombus which are carried along by the current of blood and driven into remote vessels. This gives rise to the very frequent process on which I have bestowed the name of Embolia."^[59]

Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a scientific hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi are transported from the veins of the leg and that the blood has the ability to carry such an object. He then proceeded to prove this hypothesis by well-designed experiments, repeated numerous times to consolidate evidence, and with meticulously detailed methodology. This work rebutted a claim made by the eminent French pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development and that thus coagulation was the main consequence of venous inflammation. This was a view held by many before Virchow's work. Related to this research, Virchow described the factors contributing to venous thrombosis, Virchow's triad.^[22][60]

Pathology

Virchow founded the medical fields of

Virchow was a great influence on Swedish pathologist Axel Key, who worked as his assistant during Key's doctoral studies in Berlin.^[66]

Parasitology

Virchow worked out the life cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis. Virchow noticed a mass of circular white flecks in the muscle of dog and human cadavers, similar to those described by Richard Owen in 1835. He confirmed by microscopic observation that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, curled up in the muscle tissue. Rudolph Leukart found that these tiny worms could develop into adult roundworms in the intestine of a dog. He correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human helminthiasis. Virchow further demonstrated that if the infected meat is first heated to 137 °F for 10 minutes, the worms could not infect dogs or humans.^[67] He established that human roundworm infection occurs via contaminated pork. This directly led to the establishment of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.^[68][69]

Autopsy

Virchow was the first to develop a systematic method of autopsy, based on his knowledge of cellular pathology. The modern autopsy still constitutes his techniques.^[70] His first significant autopsy was on a 50-year-old woman in 1845. He found an unusual number of white blood cells, and gave a detailed description in 1847 and named the condition as leukämie.^[71] One on his autopsies in 1857 was the first description of vertebral disc rupture.^[20][72] His autopsy on a baby in 1856 was the first description of congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia (the name given by K. M. Laurence a century later), a rare and fatal disease of the lung.^[73] From his experience of post-mortem examinations of cadavers, he published his method in a small book in 1876.^[74] His book was the first to describe the techniques of autopsy specifically to examine abnormalities in organs, and retain important tissues for further examination and demonstration. Unlike any other earlier practitioner, he practiced complete surgery of all body parts with body organs dissected one by one. This has become the standard method.^[75][76]

Ochronosis

Virchow discovered the clinical syndrome which he called ochronosis, a metabolic disorder in which a patient accumulates homogentisic acid in connective tissues and which can be identified by discolouration seen under the microscope. He found the unusual symptom in an autopsy of the corpse of a 67-year-old man on 8 May 1884. This was the first time this abnormal disease affecting cartilage and connective tissue was observed and characterised. His description and coining of the name appeared in the October 1866 issue of Virchows Archiv.^[77][78][79]

Forensic work

Virchow was the first to analyse hair in criminal investigation, and made the first forensic report on it in 1861.^[80] He was called as an expert witness in a murder case, and he used hair samples collected from the victim. He became the first to recognise the limitation of hair as evidence. He found that hairs can be different in an individual, that individual hair has characteristic features, and that hairs from different individuals can be strikingly similar. He concluded that evidence based on hair analysis is inconclusive.^[81] His testimony runs:

[T]he hairs found on the defendant do not possess any so pronounced peculiarities or individualities [so] that no one with certainty has the right to assert that they must have originated from the head of the victim.^[14]

Anthropology and prehistory biology

Virchow developed an interest in anthropology in 1865, when he discovered pile dwellings in northern Germany. In 1869, he co-founded the German Anthropological Association. In 1870 he founded the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte) which was very influential in coordinating and intensifying German archaeological research. Until his death, Virchow was several times (at least fifteen times) its president, often taking turns with his former student Adolf Bastian.^[8] As president, Virchow frequently contributed to and co-edited the society's main journal Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology), which Adolf Bastian, together with another student of Virchow, Robert Hartman, had founded in 1869.^[82][83]

In 1870, he led a major excavation of the hill forts in Pomerania. He also excavated wall mounds in

Virchow was an opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution,^[85][86] and particularly skeptical of the emergent thesis of human evolution.^[87][88] He did not reject evolutionary theory as a whole, and viewed the theory of natural selection as "an immeasurable advance" but that still has no "actual proof."^[89] On 22 September 1877, he delivered a public address entitled "The Freedom of Science in the Modern State" before the Congress of German Naturalists and Physicians in Munich. There he spoke against the teaching of the theory of evolution in schools, arguing that it was as yet an unproven hypothesis that lacked empirical foundations and that, therefore, its teaching would negatively affect scientific studies.^[90][91] Ernst Haeckel, who had been Virchow's student, later reported that his former professor said that "it is quite certain that man did not descend from the apes...not caring in the least that now almost all experts of good judgment hold the opposite conviction."^[92]

Virchow became one of the leading opponents on the debate over the authenticity of Neanderthal, discovered in 1856, as distinct species and ancestral to modern humans. He himself examined the original fossil in 1872, and presented his observations before the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.^[8] He stated that the Neanderthal had not been a primitive form of human, but an abnormal human being, who, judging by the shape of his skull, had been injured and deformed, and considering the unusual shape of his bones, had been arthritic, rickety, and feeble.^[93][94][95] With such an authority, the fossil was rejected as new species. With this reasoning, Virchow "judged Darwin an ignoramus and Haeckel a fool and was loud and frequent in the publication of these judgments,"^[96] and declared that "it is quite certain that man did not descend from the apes."^[97] The Neanderthals were later accepted as distinct species of humans, Homo neanderthalensis.^[98][99]

On 22 September 1877, at the Fiftieth Conference of the German Association of Naturalists and Physician held in Munich, Haeckel pleaded for introducing evolution in the public school curricula, and tried to dissociate Darwinism from social Darwinism.^[100] His campaign was because of Herman Müller, a school teacher who was banned because of his teaching a year earlier on the inanimate origin of life from carbon. This resulted in prolonged public debate with Virchow. A few days later Virchow responded that Darwinism was only a hypothesis, and morally dangerous to students. This severe criticism of Darwinism was immediately taken up by the London Times, from which further debates erupted among English scholars. Haeckel wrote his arguments in the October issue of Nature titled "The Present Position of Evolution Theory", to which Virchow responded in the next issue with an article "The Liberty of Science in the Modern State".^[101] Virchow stated that teaching of evolution was "contrary to the conscience of the natural scientists, who reckons only with facts."^[89] The debate led Haeckel to write a full book Freedom in Science and Teaching in 1879. That year the issue was discussed in the Prussian House of Representatives and the verdict was in favour of Virchow. In 1882 the Prussian education policy officially excluded natural history in schools.^[102]

Years later, the noted German physician Carl Ludwig Schleich would recall a conversation he held with Virchow, who was a close friend of his: "...On to the subject of Darwinism. 'I don't believe in all this,' Virchow told me. 'if I lie on my sofa and blow the possibilities away from me, as another man may blow the smoke of his cigar, I can, of course, sympathize with such dreams. But they don't stand the test of knowledge. Haeckel is a fool. That will be apparent one day. As far as that goes, if anything like transmutation did occur it could only happen in the course of pathological degeneration!'"^[103]

Virchow's ultimate opinion about evolution was reported a year before he died; in his own words:

The intermediate form is unimaginable save in a dream... We cannot teach or consent that it is an achievement that man descended from the ape or other animal.

— Homiletic Review, January, (1901)^[104][105]

Virchow's anti-evolutionism, like that of Albert von Kölliker and Thomas Brown, did not come from religion, since he was not a believer.^[16]

Anti-racism

Virchow believed that Haeckel's monist propagation of

More than a laboratory physician, Virchow was an impassioned advocate for social and political reform. His ideology involved social inequality as the cause of diseases that requires political actions,^[114] stating:

Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else but medicine on a large scale. Medicine, as a social science, as the science of human beings, has the obligation to point out problems and to attempt their theoretical solution: the politician, the practical anthropologist, must find the means for their actual solution... Science for its own sake usually means nothing more than science for the sake of the people who happen to be pursuing it. Knowledge which is unable to support action is not genuine – and how unsure is activity without understanding... If medicine is to fulfill her great task, then she must enter the political and social life... The physicians are the natural attorneys of the poor, and the social problems should largely be solved by them.^{[115][116][117]}

Virchow actively worked for social change to fight poverty and diseases. His methods involved pathological observations and statistical analyses. He called this new field of social medicine a "social science". His most important influences could be noted in Latin America, where his disciples introduced his social medicine.^[118] For example, his student Max Westenhöfer became Director of Pathology at the medical school of the University of Chile, becoming the most influential advocate. One of Westenhöfer's students, Salvador Allende, through social and political activities based on Virchow's doctrine, became the 29th President of Chile (1970–1973).^[119]

Virchow made himself known as a pronounced pro-democracy progressive in the year of revolutions in Germany (1848). His political views are evident in his Report on the Typhus Outbreak of Upper Silesia, where he states that the outbreak could not be solved by treating individual patients with drugs or with minor changes in food, housing, or clothing laws, but only through radical action to promote the advancement of an entire population, which could be achieved only by "full and unlimited democracy" and "education, freedom and prosperity".^[26]

These radical statements and his minor part in the revolution caused the government to remove him from his position in 1849, although within a year he was reinstated as prosector "on probation". Prosector was a secondary position in the hospital. This secondary position in Berlin convinced him to accept the chair of pathological anatomy at the medical school in the provincial town of Würzburg, where he continued his scientific research. Six years later, he had attained fame in scientific and medical circles, and was reinstated at Charité Hospital.^[22]

In 1859, he became a member of the Municipal Council of Berlin and began his career as a civic reformer. Elected to the Prussian Diet in 1862, he became leader of the Radical or Progressive party; and from 1880 to 1893, he was a member of the Reichstag.^[23] He worked to improve healthcare conditions for Berlin citizens, especially by working towards modern water and sewer systems. Virchow is credited as a founder of anthropology^[120] and of social medicine, frequently focusing on the fact that disease is never purely biological, but often socially derived or spread.^[121]

The duel challenge by Bismarck

As a co-founder and member of the liberal party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, he was a leading political antagonist of Bismarck. He was opposed to Bismarck's excessive military budget, which angered Bismarck sufficiently that he challenged Virchow to a duel in 1865.^[23] Virchow declined because he considered dueling an uncivilized way to solve a conflict.^[122] Various English-language sources purport a different version of events, the so-called "Sausage Duel". It has Virchow, being the one challenged and therefore entitled to choose the weapons, selecting two pork sausages, one loaded with Trichinella larvae, the other safe; Bismarck declined.^{[63][123][124]} However, there are no German-language documents confirming this version.

Kulturkampf

Virchow supported Bismarck in an attempt to reduce the political and social influence of the Catholic Church, between 1871 and 1887.

Personal life

On 24 August 1850 in Berlin, Virchow married Ferdinande Rosalie Mayer (29 February 1832 – 21 February 1913), a liberal's daughter. They had three sons and three daughters:^[129]

• Karl Virchow (1 August 1851 – 21 September 1912), a chemist
• Hans Virchow [de] (10 September 1852 – 7 April 1940), an anatomist
• Adele Virchow (1 October 1855 – 18 May 1955), the wife of Rudolf Henning, a professor of German studies
• Ernst Virchow (24 January 1858 – 5 April 1942)
• Marie Virchow (29 June 1866 – 23 October 1951), the editor of Rudolf Virchow, Briefe an Seine Eltern, 1839 bis 1864 (published in 1906)^[130] and the wife of Carl Rabl, an Austrian anatomist
• Hanna Elisabeth Maria Virchow (10 May 1873 – 28 November 1963)

Death

Virchow broke his thigh bone on 4 January 1902, jumping off a running streetcar while exiting the electric tramway. Although he anticipated full recovery, the fractured femur never healed, and restricted his physical activity. His health gradually deteriorated and he died of heart failure after eight months, on 5 September 1902, in Berlin.

Rudolf Virchow was also a collector. Several museums in Berlin emerged from Virchow's collections: the Märkisches Museum, the Museum of Prehistory and Early History, the Ethnological Museum and the Museum of Medical History. In addition, Virchow's collection of anatomical specimens from numerous European and non-European populations, which still exists today, deserves special mention. The collection is owned by the Berlin Society for Anthropology and Prehistory. The collection hit the international headlines in 2020 when the two journalists Markus Grill and David Bruser, in cooperation with the archivist Nils Seethaler, succeeded in identifying four skulls of indigenous Canadians that were thought to be lost and which came into Virchow's possession through the mediation of the Canadian doctor William Osler in the late 19th century.^[134][135]

Honours and legacy

• In June 1859, Virchow was elected to Berlin Chamber of Representatives.^[28]
• In 1860, he was elected official Member of the Königliche Wissenschaftliche Deputation für das Medizinalwesen (Royal Scientific Board for Medical Affairs).^[27]
• In 1861, he was elected foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
• In 1862, he was elected as an international Member of the American Philosophical Society.^[136]
• In March 1862, he was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives.^[27]
• In 1873, he was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He declined to be ennobled as "von Virchow," he was nonetheless designated Geheimrat ("privy councillor") in 1894.^[21]
• In 1880, he was elected member of the Reichstag of the German Empire.
• In 1881, Rudolf-Virchow-Foundation was established on the occasion of his 60th birthday.^[8]
• In 1892, he was appointed Rector of the Berlin University.
• In 1892, he was awarded the British Royal Society's Copley Medal.
• The Rudolf Virchow Center, a biomedical research center in the University of Würzburg was established in January 2002.^[137]
• Rudolf Virchow Award is given by the Society for Medical Anthropology for research achievements in medical anthropology.^[138]
• Rudolf Virchow lecture, an annual public lecture, is organised by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, for eminent scientists in the field of palaeolithic archaeology.
• Rudolf Virchow Medical Society is based in New York, and offers Rudolf Virchow Medal.^[139]

• Campus Virchow Klinikum (CVK) is the name of a campus of Charité hospital in Berlin.
• The Rudolf Virchow Monument, a muscular limestone statue, was erected in 1910 at Karlplatz in Berlin.^[140]
• Langenbeck-Virchow-Haus was built in 1915 in Berlin, jointly honouring Virchow and Bernhard von Langenbeck. Originally a medical centre, the building is now used as conference centre of the German Surgical Association (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chirurgie) and the Berlin Medical Association (BMG-Berliner Medizinische Gesellschaft).^[141]
• The Rudolf Virchow Study Center is instituted by the European University Viadrina for compiling of the complete works of Virchow.^[142]
• Virchow Hill in Antarctica is named after Rudolf Virchow.^[143]

Eponymous medical terms

Works

Virchow was a prolific writer. Some of his works are:^[144]

• Mittheilungen über die in Oberschlesien herrschende Typhus-Epidemie (1848)
• Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre., his chief work (1859; English translation, 1860): The fourth edition of this work formed the first volume of Vorlesungen über Pathologie below.
• Handbuch der Speciellen Pathologie und Therapie, prepared in collaboration with others (1854–76)
• Vorlesungen über Pathologie (1862–72)
• Die krankhaften Geschwülste (1863–67)
• Ueber den Hungertyphus (1868)
• Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am Schädel (1875)
• Beiträge zur physischen Anthropologie der Deutschen (1876)
• Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im Modernen Staat (1877)
• Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre (1879)
• Gegen den Antisemitismus (1880)

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Further reading

• Becher (1891). Rudolf Virchow, Berlin.
• Pagel, J. L. (1906). Rudolf Virchow, Leipzig.
• Ackerknecht, Erwin H. (1953) Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist, Madison.
• Virchow, RLK (1978). Cellular pathology. 1859 special ed., 204–207 John Churchill London, UK.
• The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes by Tomás de Comyn at Project Gutenberg, available at Project Gutenberg (co-authored by Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
• Virchow, Rudolf (1870). Menschen- und Affenschadeh Vortrag gehalten am 18. Febr. 1869 im Saale des Berliner Handwerkervereins. Berlin: Luderitz,
• PMID 3540555
  .
• Rather, L. J. (1990). A Commentary on the Medical Writings of Rudolf Virchow: Based on Schwalbe's Virchow–Bibliographie, 1843–1901. San Francisco: Norman Publishing.
  ISBN 978-0-9304-0519-9
  .

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Rudolf Virchow.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rudolf Virchow.

Wikisource has original works by or about:
Rudolf Virchow

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Virchow, Rudolf".

• Works by Rudolf Virchow at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Rudolf Virchow at Internet Archive
• Works by Rudolf Virchow at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• "The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes", available at Project Gutenberg (co-authored by Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
• Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
• Students and Publications of Virchow Archived 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
• A biography of Virchow by the American Association of Neurological Surgeons that deals with his early work in cerebrovascular pathology
• An English translation of the complete 1848 "Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia" is available in the 2006 edition of the journal Social Medicine
• Some places and memories related to Rudolf Virchow
• Article on Rudolf Virchow in Nautilus Archived 29 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine retrieved on 28 January 2017.
• Newspaper clippings about Rudolf Virchow in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
• "Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow", FamilySearch