Sex differences in crime
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (January 2018) |
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Sex differences in crime are differences between
Statistics have been consistent in reporting that men commit more criminal acts than women.
General theory of crime
The "general theory of crime" is accepted among scholars as one of the most valid theories of crime.[6] Burton et al. (1998) assessed Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) work on the subject, which stated that individuals with lower levels of self-control are more likely to be involved in criminal behavior, in a gender-sensitive context.[7] The purpose of their study was to account for the gender gap in crime rates. By using a self-reporting questionnaire, Burton et al. (1998) retrieved data from 555 people aged eighteen and older in the Cincinnati, Ohio, area. Early results from the study indicated that low self-control was highly positively correlated to criminal behavior in both genders, but was especially significant for males. For females, the relationship became significant when opportunity was introduced and considered with level of self-control. Opportunity was not a significant indicator of male criminal behavior, which the authors attribute to the assumption that opportunity for criminal behavior is ubiquitous for men. In this study, opportunity was measured by the number of nights per week individuals go out for recreation purposes. Similarly, the authors conclude that women are less likely to be exposed to opportunities for criminal behavior, speculating that "constraints often placed on females, and that accompany their lifestyles" contribute to less opportunity for crime. With self-control being significant for males but not for females, the conclusions of this study pointed toward the notion that men and women commit crimes for different reasons. The notion that self-control was only significant for women when combined with opportunity helps account for the gender gap seen in crime rates.[8]
David Rowe, Alexander Vazsonyi, and Daniel Flannery, authors of Sex Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?,[9] focus on the widely acknowledged fact that there is a large sex difference in crime: more men than women commit crimes.[1][2] This has been true over time and across cultures.[1] There is also a greater number of men who commit serious crimes resulting in injury or death than women.[10] In a study that looked at self-reports of delinquent acts, researchers identified several sex differences by looking at sex ratios. For every woman, 1.28 men drink alcohol, which is a large influencer in deviant behavior. For every woman, 2.7 men committed the crime of stealing up to $50. Lastly, for every woman, 3.7 men steal more than $50. Also, more males are involved in homicides, as both the perpetrators and victims, than females. Furthermore, one male is more delinquent than another for mainly the same reasons that men typically engage in criminal acts more than women.[10]
Nature, nurture, and life course
Onset
Terrie Moffitt and Avshalom Caspi[11] compare childhood risk factors of males and females portraying childhood-onset and adolescent-onset antisocial behavior, which influences deviant behavior in individuals. Childhood-onset delinquency is attributed to lack of parenting, neurocognitive problems, and temperament and behavior problems. On the other hand, adolescent-onset delinquents did not encounter similar childhood problems. This study showed an male-to-female ratio of 10:1 for those experiencing childhood-onset delinquency and 15:1 for adolescent-onset delinquency. Moffitt and Caspi hypothesized that "'life-course-persistent' antisocial behavior originates early in life, when the difficult behavior of a high-risk young child is exacerbated by a high-risk social environment".[12] Also, "'adolescent-limited' antisocial behavior emerges alongside puberty, where otherwise healthy youngsters experience dysphoria during the relatively role-less years between biological maturation and access to mature privileges and responsibilities", called the maturity gap.[12] They look at the taxonomy theory, which states that the gender difference in crime are based on sex differences in the risk factors for life-course-persistent antisocial behavior. Based on research, girls are less likely than boys to have nervous system dysfunctions, difficult temperament, late maturity in verbal and motor development, learning disabilities, and childhood behavioral problems.[12]
Sociology
Considerations of gender in regard to crime have been considered to be largely ignored and pushed aside in criminological and sociological study, until recent years, to the extent of female deviance having been marginalized.[13] In the past fifty years of sociological research into crime and deviance, sex differences were understood and quite often mentioned within works, such as Merton's theory of anomie; however, they were not critically discussed, and often any mention of female delinquency was only as comparative to males, to explain male behaviors, or through defining the girl as taking on the role of a boy, namely, conducting their behavior and appearance as that of a tomboy and by rejecting the female gender role, adopting stereotypical masculine traits.
Eagly and Steffen suggested in their meta-analysis of data on sex and aggression that beliefs about the negative consequences of violating gender expectations affect how both genders behave regarding aggression.[14] Psychologist Anne Campbell argued that "cultural interpretations have 'enhanced' evolutionarily based sex differences by a process of imposition which stigmatises the expression of aggression by females and causes women to offer exculpatory (rather than justificatory) accounts of their own aggression."[15]
One key reason contended for this lack of attention to females in crime and deviance is due to the view that female crime has almost exclusively been dealt with by men, from policing through to legislators, and that this has continued through into the theoretical approaches, quite often portraying what could be considered as a one-sided view, as Mannheim suggested.[16]
However, other contentions have been made as explanations for the invisibility of women in regard to theoretical approaches, such as: females have an '...apparently low level of offending'); that they pose less of a social threat than their male counterparts; that their 'delinquencies tend to be of a relatively minor kind', but also due to the fear that including women in research could threaten or undermine theories, as Thrasher and Sutherland feared would happen with their research.[13]
Further theories have been contended, with many debates surrounding the involvement and ignoring of women within theoretical studies of crime; however, with new approaches and advances in feminist studies and masculinity studies, and the claims of increases in recent years in female crime, especially that of violent crime.[17]
Past studies explained gender and crime through psychological and biological aspects. However, now specific sociological theories analyze the gender differences when it comes to committing crime. Brezina's research focuses on the "general strain theory," specifically, on why males and females have a gap rate in crime. One view is that the gender gap of crime is associated with different strains and various types of experiences males and females go through. For instance, their socialization, life events, home life, and relationships differ from one another.[18] Because of this, research suggests that boys and men are more closely related to crime and delinquency. Brezina argues that because boys are more exposed to harsh punishment from their parents while growing up, negative experiences at school, no support system, and homelessness, they have more freedom to commit a crime.[19] Brezina states that some boys and men tend to see crime as acceptable because they favor their "internalized 'masculine' values."[19]
Brezina argues that girls and women have limited opportunities to commit crime. They, for example, are more dedicated to family and friends, have higher parental supervision, and are less likely to link themselves to delinquent peers. Therefore, their strains would be high family demands and lose of friendship.[20] This leads to them reacting to strain differently than males do. Instead of coping their strain with crime, they express it with their emotions to eliminate the stress. The emotional response females receive, are fear, guilt, anxiety, or shame, which decreases their chances of committing a crime.[18] In addition, girls and women have a great amount of social support, which also leads to lower rate of crime. The types of strain that males and females experience can be an understanding of why there is a gender gap in crime.
Sociobiological and evolutionary psychology perspective
Psychologist and professor
There are two theories on the role of testosterone in aggression and competition among males.[24] The first one is the Challenge hypothesis which states that testosterone would increase during puberty thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behaviour which would include aggression as a result of evolution.[24] Thus it is the challenge of competition in relation to testosterone among males of the species that facilitates aggression and violence.[24] Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone levels.[24] The same research also found fathers (those outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males.[24] The second theory is also similar and is known as the evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory of male aggression.[25][26] Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even as far as being a risk to harming others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible.[27] Thus, crime can be seen as an extreme form of adaptation to gain status and acquire more resources. Many other researchers have agreed with this and have stated that criminal behavior is an expression of inter-male competition in mating efforts and resource seeking since there is a huge correlation between criminals and fathering children at younger ages.[28]
Neurobiology
Neurobiological abnormalities associated with criminality also show sex differences. One study found that sex differences in antisocial behaviour were reduced by 77% when controlling sex difference in the grey matter of the orbitofrontal cortex.[29]
Psychopathology
Psychological traits and syndromes associated with criminal and antisocial behaviour are more frequent in men. Examples include antisocial and narcissistic personality disorders, substance use disorders, psychopathy, and grandiose narcissism.[30][31][32][33]
Aggression and violence among peers and in relationships
Women are more likely to use direct aggression in private, where other people cannot see them, and are more likely to use indirect aggression (such as
According to the 2015
While the literature generally finds that women are more commonly the victims of
One study argued that it was the above-cited Dekeseredy et al. that in fact improperly contextualized partner violence; Dekeseredy's campus study was based around asking women and only women if their violence was in
A 2008 review published in the journal
Court system
One study has noted substantial differences in the treatment and behavior of defendants in the courts on the basis of gender; female criminologist Frances Heidensohn postulates that for judges and juries it is often "impossible to isolate the circumstances that the defendant is a woman from the circumstances that she can also be a widow, a mother, attractive, or may cry on the stand."[55] Furthermore, male and female defendants in court have reported being advised to conduct themselves differently in accordance with their gender; women in particular recall being advised to express "mute passivity," whereas men are encouraged to "assert themselves" in cross-examinations and testimony.[55]
Statistics
In the United States
In the United States, men are much more likely to be incarcerated than women. More than 9 times as many men (5,037,000) as women (581,000) had ever at one time been incarcerated in a State or Federal prison at year end 2001.[56] According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, males experienced higher victimization rates than females for all types of violent crime except rape or other sexual assault.[57]
In 2014, more than 73% of those arrested in the US were males.[58] Men accounted for 80.4 percent of persons arrested for violent crime and 62.9 percent of those arrested for property crime.[58] In 2011, the United States Department of Justice compiled homicide statistics in the United States between 1980 and 2008.[59] That study showed the following:
- Males were convicted of the vast majority of homicides in the United States, representing 89.5% of the total number of offenders.[59]
- Young adult black males had the highest homicide conviction rate compared to offenders in other racial and sex categories.[59]
- White females of all ages had the lowest conviction rates of any racial or age groups,[59] however these statistics do not isolate Asian offenders from a diverse 'other' category.[60] Asian women are considerably less likely to commit homicide than white American women.[61]
- Of children under age 5 killed by a parent, the rate for biological father conviction was slightly higher than for biological mothers.[59]
- However, of children under 5 killed by someone other than their parent, 80% of the people that were convicted were males.[59]
- Victimization rates for both males and females have been relatively stable since 2000.[59]
- Males were more likely to be murder victims (76.8%).[59]
- Females were most likely to be victims of domestic homicides (63.7%) and sex-related homicides (81.7%)[59]
- Males were most likely to be victims of drug-related (90.5%) and gang-related homicides (94.6%).[59]
2011 arrest data in suburban areas from the FBI:[62]
- Males constituted 98.9% of those arrested for forcible rape[62]
- Males constituted 87.9% of those arrested for robbery[62]
- Males constituted 85.0% of those arrested for burglary[62]
- Males constituted 83.0% of those arrested for arson.[62]
- Males constituted 81.7% of those arrested for vandalism.[62]
- Males constituted 81.5% of those arrested for motor-vehicle theft.[62]
- Males constituted 79.7% of those arrested for offenses against family and children.[62]
- Males constituted 77.8% of those arrested for aggravated assault[62]
- Males constituted 58.7% of those arrested for fraud.[62]
- Males constituted 57.3% of those arrested for larceny-theft.[62]
- Males constituted 51.3% of those arrested for embezzlement.[62]
From 2003 to 2012, there was a decrease in the
In Canada
According to a
Gender statistics Canada by total charged annual crimes (2002):[67]
- Adult males – 326,536[67]
- Adult females – 71,058[67]
- Young males (12-17) – 74,513[67]
- Youth females (12-17) – 24, 487[67]
Victims of Person Crimes in Canada by Gender, per 100,000 residents (2008)[68] | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crime | Female | Male | Result | |||||||||
Aggravated assault[69] | 119 | 233 | Males are 2 times more likely | |||||||||
Forcible confinement | 22 | 7 | Females are 3.1 times more likely | |||||||||
Homicide & attempted murder | 2 | 7 | Males are 3.5 times more likely | |||||||||
Robbery | 62 | 114 | Males are 1.8 times more likely | |||||||||
Sexual assault | 68 | 6 | Females are 11.3 times more likely | |||||||||
Simple assault[70] | 576 | 484 | Females are 1.2 times more likely | |||||||||
Uttering threats | 156 | 184 | Males are 1.2 times more likely | |||||||||
Criminal harassment |
135 | 51 | Females are 2.6 times more likely | |||||||||
Other assaults | 16 | 62 | Males are 3.9 times more likely | |||||||||
Other "person" crimes | 1 | 2 | Males are 2 times more likely |
In 2013 and 2014, males accounted for 85% of those that have committed legal offenses and sent to provincial and territorial correctional services in Canada.[71] Females account for 15 percent of overall committed legal offenses.[71]
Worldwide homicide statistics by gender
According to the data given by the
See also
- Power-control theory of gender and delinquency
- Incarceration of women
- Race and crime in the United States
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0415281676. Retrieved August 7, 2016.
Statistics repeatedly show that many more men than women commit crimes. Indeed, as Richard Collier notes, 'most crimes would remain unimaginable without the presence of men (Collier, 1998; see also Jefferson, 2002).
- ^ ISBN 978-1449634032. Retrieved August 7, 2016.
[...] it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes.
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- ^ Feminism and Criminology In Britain (Heidensohn, 1995).
- ^ Girls In The Youth Justice System Archived 2008-10-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Puhrmann, Aaron (2015-12-10). "Gender and General Strain Theory: An Examination of the Role of Gendered Strains and Negative Emotions on Crime". Open Access Dissertations.
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This is an issue that affects vast numbers of women throughout all nations of the world. [...] Although there are cases in which men are the victims of domestic violence, nevertheless 'the available research suggests that domestic violence is overwhelmingly directed by men against women [...] In addition, violence used by men against female partners tends to be much more severe than that used by women against men. Mullender and Morley state that 'Domestic violence against women is the most common form of family violence worldwide.'
- ISBN 9781136688638,
Intimate male partners are most often the main perpetrators of violence against women, a form of violence known as intimate partner violence, 'domestic' violence or 'spousal (or wife) abuse.' Intimate partner violence and sexual violence, whether by partners, acquaintances or strangers, are common worldwide and disproportionately affect women, although are not exclusive to them.
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- ^ a b Heidensohn, Frances (1986). Women and Crime. New York: New York University Press.
- ^ "Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population". U.S. Department of Justice. August 2003. Archived from the original on 2009-09-01.
- ^ "Gender". Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- ^ a b "Persons Arrested". FBI. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008" United States Department of Justice (2010)
- ISBN 978-1-4039-8062-5. "Special run by Department of Justice (DOJ) Criminal Statistics Bureau. The DOJ does not isolate Asians under this data set. They are included under the "other" category that totaled 7.4% of those convicted of homicide."
- ISBN 978-1-134-80829-8. "Female-perpetrated homicides tell a similar story. In one study (Mann, 1996) 75% of arrests were of African-American women, 13% were white women, whereas no Asian women at all were arrested."
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Table 66". FBI. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- ^ a b c d Federal Bureau of Investigation. "Ten-Year Arrest Trends, by Sex, 2003-2012".
- ^ Durose, Matthew R (2005). "Family Violence Statistics Including Statistics on Strangers and Acquaintances" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics. US Department of Justice.
- ^ Truman, Jennifer L (2014). "Nonfatal Domestic Violence, 2003–2012" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics. US Department of Justice.
- ^ Aggressive Girls, Public Health Agency of Canada, last updated 10 June 2006, URL accessed on April 13, 2007
- ^ a b c d e Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics. "CANSIM - 109-5009 - Adults and youths charged, by sex and offence category, Canada, provinces and territories". www5.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Rates of victims of police-reported violent crime by age group, Canada, 2008 Retrieved May-31-2014
- ^ Aggravated assaults include; assault level 3 and assault level 2
- ^ Includes assault 1
- ^ a b Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics (2015-04-22). "Adult correctional statistics in Canada, 2013/2014". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2015-12-15.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ UNDOC Homicide Statistics 2013 used tables: Homicide counts and rates & Percentage of male and female homicide victims Retrieved May-31-2014
- ^ Gibbons, Jonathan (2013). "Global Study on Homicide" (PDF). www.unodc.org. United National Office of Drugs and Crime (Vienna).
- ^ Gibbons, Jonathan (2011). "Global study on homicide" (PDF). www.unodc.org. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (Vienna).
Bibliography
- Campbell, Anne (1984). The Girls in the Gang: A Report from New York City (Olympic Marketing Corp) ISBN 978-0-631-13374-2
- Fisher, J. (1999). "Ethics Check". CMA Management Magazine, 36-37
- Heidensohn, F. (1995). Women and Crime. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
- Bibliography on "Girls and Violence" on the University of Glasgow's website
- Other bibliography concerning gender & crime with descriptions, from the Oxford University Press on-line resources
Further reading
- Finley, Laura L. (2017). "Male Versus Female Criminality". Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia of Trends and Controversies in the Justice System, Volume 1: A–M. ABC-CLIO. pp. 317–319. ISBN 978-1-61-069927-3.
External links
- Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974-2001
- [citation needed]Most victims and perpetrators in homicides are male U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
- Girls In The Youth Justice System
- Feminism and Criminology in Britain British Journal Of Criminology. Spring 1988, Vol. 28: No. 2.
- Gang Violence In The PostIndustrial Era Crime and Justice Journal. 1998. Vol. 24.