Evolutionary musicology
Evolutionary musicology is a subfield of
History
The origins of the field can be traced back to Charles Darwin who wrote in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex:
When we treat of sexual selection we shall see that primeval man, or rather some early progenitor of man, probably first used his voice in producing true musical cadences, that is in singing, as do some of the gibbon-apes at the present day; and we may conclude from a widely-spread analogy, that this power would have been especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes,—would have expressed various emotions, such as love, jealousy, triumph,—and would have served as a challenge to rivals. It is, therefore, probable that the imitation of musical cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.[1]
This theory of a musical protolanguage has been revived and re-discovered repeatedly.[2]
The origins of music
Like the origin of language, the origin of music has been a topic for speculation and debate for centuries. Leading theories include Darwin's theory of partner choice (women choose male partners based on musical displays), the idea that human musical behaviors are primarily based on behaviors of other animals (see zoomusicology), the idea that music emerged because it promotes social cohesion, the idea that music emerged because it helps children acquire verbal, social, and motor skills, and the idea that musical sound and movement patterns, and links between music, religion and spirituality, originated in prenatal psychology and mother-infant attachment.
Two major topics for any subfield of evolutionary psychology are the adaptive function (if any) and phylogenetic history of the mechanism or behavior of interest including when music arose in human ancestry and from what ancestral traits it developed. Current debate addresses each of these.
One part of the adaptive function question is whether music constitutes an evolutionary adaptation or exaptation (i.e. by-product of evolution). Steven Pinker, in his book How the Mind Works, for example, argues that music is merely "auditory cheesecake"—it was evolutionarily adaptive to have a preference for fat and sugar but cheesecake did not play a role in that selection process. This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[3][4][5]
Adaptation, on the other hand, is highlighted in hypotheses such as the one by Edward Hagen and Gregory Bryant which posits that human music evolved from animal territorial signals, eventually becoming a method of signaling a group's social cohesion to other groups for the purposes of making beneficial multi-group alliances.[6][7]
The bipedalism hypothesis
The evolutionary switch to bipedalism may have influenced the origins of music.[8] The background is that noise of locomotion and ventilation may mask critical auditory information. Human locomotion is likely to produce more predictable sounds than those of non-human primates. Predictable locomotion sounds may have improved our capacity of entrainment, which is the synchronization of behavior of different organisms by a regular beat. A sense of rhythm could aid the brain in distinguishing among sounds arising from discrete sources and also help individuals to synchronize their movements with one another. Synchronization of group movement may improve perception by providing periods of relative silence and by facilitating auditory processing.[9][10] The adaptive value of such skills to early human ancestors may have been keener detection of prey or stalkers and enhanced communication. Thus, bipedal walking may have influenced the development of entrainment in humans and thereby the evolution of rhythmic abilities. Primitive hominids lived and moved around in small groups. The noise generated by the locomotion of two or more individuals can result in a complicated mix of footsteps, breathing, movements against vegetation, echoes, etc. The ability to perceive differences in pitch, rhythm, and harmonies, i.e. "musicality", could help the brain to distinguish among sounds arising from discrete sources, and also help the individual to synchronize movements with the group. Endurance and an interest in listening might, for the same reasons, have been associated with survival advantages eventually resulting in adaptive selection for rhythmic and musical abilities and reinforcement of such abilities. Listening to music seems to stimulate release of dopamine. Rhythmic group locomotion combined with attentive listening in nature may have resulted in reinforcement through dopamine release. A primarily survival-based behavior may eventually have attained similarities to dance and music, due to such reinforcement mechanisms. Since music may facilitate social cohesion, improve group effort, reduce conflict, facilitate perceptual and motor skill development, and improve trans-generational communication,[11] music-like behavior may at some stage have become incorporated into human culture.
Another proposed adaptive function is creating intra-group bonding. In this aspect it has been seen as complementary to language by creating strong positive emotions while not having a specific message people may disagree on. Music's ability to cause entrainment has also been pointed out. A different explanation is that signaling fitness and creativity by the producer or performer to attract mates. Still another is that music may have developed from human mother-infant auditory interactions (
Part of the problem in the debate is that music, like any complex cognitive function, is not a holistic entity but rather modular[13]—perception and production of rhythm, melodies, harmony and other musical parameters may thus involve multiple cognitive functions with possibly quite distinct evolutionary histories.[14]
The Musilanguage hypothesis
"Musilanguage" is a term coined by Steven Brown to describe his hypothesis of the ancestral human traits that evolved into language and musical abilities. It is both a model of musical and linguistic evolution and a term coined to describe a certain stage in that evolution. Brown argues that both music and human language have origins in a "musilanguage" stage of evolution and that the structural features shared by music and language are not the results of mere chance parallelism, nor are they a function of one system emerging from the other. This model argues that "music emphasizes sound as emotive meaning and language emphasizes sound as referential meaning."[15] The musilanguage model is a structural model of music evolution, meaning that it views music's acoustic properties as effects of homologous precursor functions. This can be contrasted with functional models of music evolution, which view music's innate physical properties to be determined by its adaptive roles.
The musilanguage evolutionary stage is argued to exhibit three properties found in both music and language: lexical tone, combinatorial phrase formation, and expressive phrasing mechanisms. Many of these ideas have their roots in existing phonological theory in linguistics, but Brown argues that phonological theory has largely neglected the strong mechanistic parallels between melody, phrasing, and rhythm in speech and music.
Lexical tone refers to the pitch of speech as a vehicle for semantic meaning. The importance of pitch to conveying musical ideas is well-known, but the linguistic importance of pitch is less obvious.
Combinatorial formation refers to the ability to form small phrases from different tonal elements. These phrases must be able to exhibit melodic, rhythmic, and semantic variation, and must be able to combine with other phrases to create global
Expressive phrasing is the device by which expressive emphasis can be added to the phrases, both at a local (in the sense of individual units) and global (in the sense of phrases) level. There are numerous ways this can occur in both speech and music that exhibit interesting parallels. For instance, the increase in the amplitude of a sound being played by an instrument accents that sound much the same way that an increase in amplitude can emphasize a particular point in speech. Similarly, speaking very rapidly often creates a frenzied effect that mirrors that of a fast and agitated musical passage.
AVID model of music evolution
It is theorized that
Comparative musicology in animals
Singing animals
Scholars agree that singing is strongly present in many different species.).
Singing to animals
Herders in Scandinavia use songs known as kulning to call livestock. Mongolian herders use species-specific songs to encourage bonding between animals and their newborn offspring.[23]
See also
References
- ^ "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex". 1871.
- ISBN 978-0-262-73143-0.
- ^ Perlovsky, L (2011). "Music. Cognitive Function, Origin, And Evolution of Musical Emotions". WebmedCentral PSYCHOLOGY. 2 (2): WMC001494.
- PMID 11882864.
- ^ Carroll, Joseph (1998). "Steven Pinker's Cheesecake for the Mind". Cogweb.ucla.edu. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
- S2CID 12799432. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
- S2CID 39481097.
- PMID 23990063.
- .
- PMID 21748447.
- S2CID 11261226.
- ^ The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Edited by Robin Dunbar and Louise Barret, Oxford University Press, 2007, Chapter 45 Music and cognitive evolution.
- ISBN 0-262-56025-9
- ^ Honing, H. (ed.) (2018). The Origins of Musicality. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
- ISBN 0-262-23206-5.
- Who Asked the First Question?The Origins of Human Choral Singing, Intelligence, Language and Speech (2006) Logos
- ^ Jordania, J. (2009) Times to fight and times to relax: Singing and humming at the beginning of Human evolutionary history 1: 272–277
- ^ Darwin, C. Descent of Men, 2004:123
- PMID 5480089.
- MIT
- ISBN 978-0-262-73143-0.
- MIT
- S2CID 204126120.
- Ball, Philip (9 July 2005). "Music: The international language?". New Scientist.
- Bruno Tucunduva Ruviaro (3 June 2004). "The Spell of Speech, 'The Musilanguage model'". Archived from the original on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2006.
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(help) - Chase, Wayne (2006). "DID MUSIC AND LANGUAGE CO-EVOLVE? SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MUSIC AND LANGUAGE". How music REALLY works. Roedy Black Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-897311-56-7
- Nechvatal, Tony (6 August 2005). "Musical talk". New Scientist.
- Oesch, Nathan (2019). "Music and language in social interaction: synchrony, antiphony, and functional origins". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 1514. PMID 31312163.
- Philip Tagg. "A Short Prehistory of Western Music". Provisional course material, W310 degree course, IPM, University of Liverpool. Retrieved 21 December 2005.
Further reading
- Fitch, W. Tecumseh (12 February 2009). "Musical protolanguage: Darwin's theory of language evolution revisited". Language Log. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
- ISBN 978-1-7802-2258-5.
- Oesch, Nathan (22 May 2020). "Evolutionary musicology". Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science: 1–6. S2CID 241351346. Retrieved 1 January 2020.