Cardinal direction: Difference between revisions
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*''west'' (''*wes-t-'') from a word for "evening." The proto-Indo-European form is *''uestos'' from the root *ues- 'shine (red)',<ref>entries 1173 of the [[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]</ref> itself a form of *''aues''-.<ref>entries 86-7 of the [[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]</ref> Cognate with the root are the [[Latin]] words ''[[wikt:vesper|vesper]]'' and ''[[wikt:vesta|vesta]]'' and the [[Ancient Greek]] ''[[Hestia]]'', ''[[Hesperus]]'' and ''[[Hesperides]]''. |
*''west'' (''*wes-t-'') from a word for "evening." The proto-Indo-European form is *''uestos'' from the root *ues- 'shine (red)',<ref>entries 1173 of the [[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]</ref> itself a form of *''aues''-.<ref>entries 86-7 of the [[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]</ref> Cognate with the root are the [[Latin]] words ''[[wikt:vesper|vesper]]'' and ''[[wikt:vesta|vesta]]'' and the [[Ancient Greek]] ''[[Hestia]]'', ''[[Hesperus]]'' and ''[[Hesperides]]''. |
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==Cultural variations== |
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==Cardinal directions in world cultures== |
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In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named [[wind]]s with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, [[Ancient Greece|classical Greek culture]] characterized these winds as [[Anemoi]]. |
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In [[Modern_history#Pre-modern|pre-modern]] Europe more generally, between eight and 32 [[points of the compass]] – cardinal and intercardinal subdirections – were given names. These often corresponded to the directional winds of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (for example, south-east was linked to the ''[[Sirocco]]'', a wind from the Sahara). |
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Particular [[color]]s are associated in some traditions with the cardinal points. These are typically "[[Natural Color System|natural colors]]" of human perception rather than optical [[primary color]]s.{{vague}} |
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Many cultures, especially in [[Asia]], include the center as a '''fifth cardinal point'''. |
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===Northern Eurasia=== |
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|<ref>Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedic dictionary, Kiev, 1987.</ref> |
|<ref>Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedic dictionary, Kiev, 1987.</ref> |
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Many cultures not descended from European traditions use cardinal directions, but have a number other than four. Typically, a “center” direction is added, for a total of five. Rather than the Western use of direction letters, properties such as [[color]]s are often associated with the various cardinal directions—these are typically the [[Natural Color System|natural colors]] of human perception rather than optical [[primary color]]s. Some examples are shown here. In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named [[wind]]s with cardinal and intercardinal directions. The classical [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] personified these winds as [[Anemoi]]. When [[boxing the compass]] into intercardinal subdirections, each corresponds to one of the directional winds into the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (for example, south-east is linked to ''[[Sirocco]]'', the wind from the Sahara). |
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=== Arabic language === |
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⚫ | Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as ''Ash Shamaliyah'' (N), ''Al Gharbiyah'' (W), ''Ash Sharqiyah'' (E) and ''Al Janobiyah'' (S). Additionally, ''Al Wusta'' is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names (''[[wilayah]]s'', states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as [[Algarve]], Portugal and [[Axarquía]], Spain). |
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=== Far East ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Wu Xing|Five elements (Chinese philosophy)]] --> |
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[[Central Asia]]n, [[Eastern Europe]]an and [[North East Asia]]n cultures frequently have traditions associating colors with four or five cardinal points. |
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Systems with five cardinal points include those from [[Dynasties in Chinese history|pre-modern China]], as well as traditional [[Turkic culture|Turkic]], [[Tibetan culture|Tibetan]] and [[Ainu culture|Ainu]] cultures. |
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[[Dynasties in Chinese history|Dynastic Chinese]] culture and some other [[Central Asia|East Central Asia]]n cultures view the ''center'' as a fifth principal direction hence the English translated term ''"Five Cardinal Points"''. Where it is different than the west, is that the term is used as a foundation for [[I Ching]], the [[Wu Xing]] and the five [[naked-eye planet]]s. |
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In traditional [[Chinese astrology]], the zodiacal belt is divided into the [[Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)|four constellation groups]] corresponding to the four cardinal directions. |
In Chinese tradition, a five cardinal point system is a foundation for [[I Ching]], the [[Wu Xing]] and the five [[naked-eye planet]]s. In traditional [[Chinese astrology]], the zodiacal belt is divided into the [[Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)|four constellation groups]] corresponding to the four cardinal directions. |
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Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a [[Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)|mythological creature of that color]]. Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction.<ref name="ChiTra"/><ref name="ChiCo">{{Cite web |url=http://ignca.nic.in/ps_01005.htm |title=Chinese Cosmogony |accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref> |
Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a [[Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)|mythological creature of that color]]. Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction.<ref name="ChiTra"/><ref name="ChiCo">{{Cite web |url=http://ignca.nic.in/ps_01005.htm |title=Chinese Cosmogony |accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref> |
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;Examples |
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'''East:''' [[Green]] ([[wikt:青|青]] "qīng" corresponds to both green and blue); Spring; [[Wood (classical element)|Wood]] |
'''East:''' [[Green]] ([[wikt:青|青]] "qīng" corresponds to both green and blue); Spring; [[Wood (classical element)|Wood]] |
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'''Center:''' [[Yellow]]; [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]] |
'''Center:''' [[Yellow]]; [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]] |
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:[[Huangshan]]: "Yellow Mountain" in central China |
:[[Huangshan]]: "Yellow Mountain" in central China |
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:[[ |
:[[Huang He]]: "Yellow River" in central China |
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:[[Golden Horde]]: "Central Army" of the Mongols |
:[[Golden Horde]]: "Central Army" of the Mongols |
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=== |
=== Arabic world === |
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⚫ | Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as ''Ash Shamaliyah'' (N), ''Al Gharbiyah'' (W), ''Ash Sharqiyah'' (E) and ''Al Janobiyah'' (S). Additionally, ''Al Wusta'' is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names (''[[wilayah]]s'', states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as [[Algarve]], Portugal and [[Axarquía]], Spain). |
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===Native Americans=== |
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In [[Mesoamerica]] and [[North America]], a number of traditional [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center. Some may also include "above" and "below" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions. Each direction may be associated with a color, which can vary widely between nations, but which is usually one of the basic colors found in nature and natural pigments, such as black, red, white, and yellow, with occasional appearances of blue, green, or other hues.<ref>{{Citation | last = Anderson | first = Kasper Wrem | last2 = Helmke | first2 = Christophe | year = 2013 | title = The Personifications of Celestial Water: The Many Guises of the Storm God in the Pantheon and Cosmology of Teotihuacan | journal = Contributions in New World Archaeology | volume = 5 | pages = 165-196 | postscript = , at pp. 177-179.}} </ref> In some cases, e.g., many of the [[Puebloan peoples]] of the [[Southwestern United States]], the four named directions are not North, South, East and West but are the four intermediate directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices.<ref>{{Citation | first = Stephen C. | last = McCluskey| author-link = | editor-last = Ruggles | editor-first = Clive L. N. | chapter = Hopi and Puebloan Ethnoastronomy and Ethnoscience | title = Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy | year = 2014 | pages = 649–658 | place = New York | publisher = Springer Science+Business Media | doi = 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_48 | isbn = 978-1-4614-6140-1}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Curtis | first = Edward S. | author-link = Edward S. Curtis | editor-last = Hodge | editor-first = Frederick Webb | editor-link = Frederick Webb Hodge | year = 1922 | title = The Hopi | series = The North American Indian | volume = 12 | publisher = The Plimpton Press | publication-place = Norwood, Mass. | page = 246 | url = http://curtis.library.northwestern.edu/curtis/viewPage.cgi?showp=1&size=2&id=nai.12.book.00000333&volume=12#nav | accessdate = 23 Aug 2014 | quote = Hopi orientation corresponds only approximately with ours, their cardinal points being marked by the solstitial rising and setting points of the sun.... Their cardinal points therefore are not mutually equidistant on the horizon and agree roughly with our semi-cardinal points. }}</ref> There can be great variety in color symbolism, even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically. |
In [[Mesoamerica]] and [[North America]], a number of traditional [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center. Some may also include "above" and "below" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions. Each direction may be associated with a color, which can vary widely between nations, but which is usually one of the basic colors found in nature and natural pigments, such as black, red, white, and yellow, with occasional appearances of blue, green, or other hues.<ref>{{Citation | last = Anderson | first = Kasper Wrem | last2 = Helmke | first2 = Christophe | year = 2013 | title = The Personifications of Celestial Water: The Many Guises of the Storm God in the Pantheon and Cosmology of Teotihuacan | journal = Contributions in New World Archaeology | volume = 5 | pages = 165-196 | postscript = , at pp. 177-179.}} </ref> In some cases, e.g., many of the [[Puebloan peoples]] of the [[Southwestern United States]], the four named directions are not North, South, East and West but are the four intermediate directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices.<ref>{{Citation | first = Stephen C. | last = McCluskey| author-link = | editor-last = Ruggles | editor-first = Clive L. N. | chapter = Hopi and Puebloan Ethnoastronomy and Ethnoscience | title = Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy | year = 2014 | pages = 649–658 | place = New York | publisher = Springer Science+Business Media | doi = 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_48 | isbn = 978-1-4614-6140-1}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Curtis | first = Edward S. | author-link = Edward S. Curtis | editor-last = Hodge | editor-first = Frederick Webb | editor-link = Frederick Webb Hodge | year = 1922 | title = The Hopi | series = The North American Indian | volume = 12 | publisher = The Plimpton Press | publication-place = Norwood, Mass. | page = 246 | url = http://curtis.library.northwestern.edu/curtis/viewPage.cgi?showp=1&size=2&id=nai.12.book.00000333&volume=12#nav | accessdate = 23 Aug 2014 | quote = Hopi orientation corresponds only approximately with ours, their cardinal points being marked by the solstitial rising and setting points of the sun.... Their cardinal points therefore are not mutually equidistant on the horizon and agree roughly with our semi-cardinal points. }}</ref> There can be great variety in color symbolism, even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically. |
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===Australia=== |
===Indigenous Australia=== |
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Some [[indigenous Australians]] have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the [[Warlpiri people]] have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions<ref>''Ngurra-kurlu: A way of working with Warlpiri people'' Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu WJ, Holmes M and Box L. 2008, Desert Knowledge CRC Report 41, Alice Springs</ref> and the [[Guugu Yimithirr people]] use cardinal directions rather than [[relative direction]] even when indicating the position of an object close to their body (see [[Relative direction#Cultures without relative directions| |
Some [[indigenous Australians]] have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the [[Warlpiri people]] have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions<ref>''Ngurra-kurlu: A way of working with Warlpiri people'' Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu WJ, Holmes M and Box L. 2008, Desert Knowledge CRC Report 41, Alice Springs</ref> and the [[Guugu Yimithirr people]] use cardinal directions rather than [[relative direction]] even when indicating the position of an object close to their body. (For more information, see: [[Relative direction#Cultures without relative directions|Cultural use of cardinal rather than relative direction]].) |
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The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in [[Aboriginal stone arrangement]]s. |
The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in [[Aboriginal stone arrangement]]s. |
Revision as of 06:49, 5 December 2016
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Brosen_windrose.svg/300px-Brosen_windrose.svg.png)
The four cardinal directions or cardinal points are the directions of north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials: N, E, S, W. East and west are at right angles to north and south, with east being in the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west being directly opposite east. Intermediate points between the four cardinal directions form the points of the compass. The intermediate (intercardinal, or ordinal) directions are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). Further, the intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called a secondary-intercardinal direction, the eight shortest points in the compass rose to the right, i.e. NNE, ENE, ESE, and so on.
Locating the directions
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Direction versus bearing
To keep to a bearing is not, in general, the same as going in a straight direction along a great circle. Conversely, one can keep to a great circle and the bearing may change. Thus the bearing of a straight path crossing the North Pole changes abruptly at the Pole from North to South. When traveling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without need to steer). Anywhere else, maintaining latitude requires a change in direction, requires steering. However, this change in direction becomes increasingly negligible as one moves to lower latitudes.
Magnetic compass
The
The Sun
The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known. In the morning the Sun rises roughly in the east (due east only on the equinoxes) and tracks upwards. In the evening it sets in the west, again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes. In the middle of the day it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This method does not work very well when closer to the equator (i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) since, in the northern hemisphere, the sun may be directly overhead or even to the north in summer. Conversely, at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun may be to the south of the observer in summer. In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday.
Because of the Earth's
Watch face
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Using_watch_and_sun_as_compass.svg/170px-Using_watch_and_sun_as_compass.svg.png)
There is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. The difference between local time and zone time, the equation of time, and (near the tropics) the non-uniform change of the Sun's azimuth at different times of day limit the accuracy of this method.
Sundial
A portable sundial can be used as a more accurate instrument than a watch for determining the cardinal directions. Since the design of a sundial takes account of the latitude of the observer, it can be used at any latitude. See: Sundial#Using a sundial as a compass.
Astronomy
Astronomy provides a method for finding direction at night. All the stars appear to lie on the imaginary Celestial sphere. Because of the rotation of the Earth, the Celestial Sphere appears to rotate around an axis passing through the North and South poles of the Earth. This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.
In either hemisphere, observations of the night sky show that the visible stars appear to be moving in circular paths, caused by the rotation of the Earth. This is best seen in a
The Northern Celestial pole is currently (but not permanently) within a fraction of 1
While observers in the Northern hemisphere can use the star Polaris to determine the Northern celestial pole, the
Gyrocompass
At the very end of the 19th century, in response to the development of battleships with large traversable guns that affected magnetic compasses, and possibly to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one's alignment with true north, the gyrocompass was developed for shipboard use. Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields. Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation. It also requires a continuous power supply for its motors, and that it be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time while it properly aligns itself.
Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR functionality is becoming more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones. Handheld GPSRs have modest power requirements, can be shut down as needed, and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas, separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.
Additional points
The directional names are also routinely and very conveniently associated with the
- North (N): 0° = 360°
- East (E): 90°
- South (S): 180°
- West (W): 270°
An intercardinal, or ordinal, or intermediate, direction is one of the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between the cardinal directions.
- Northeast (NE), 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest.
- Southeast (SE), 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest.
- Southwest (SW), 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast.
- Northwest (NW), 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast.
These 8 words have been further compounded, resulting in a total of 32 named points evenly spaced around the compass: north (N), north by east (NbE), north-northeast (NNE), northeast by north (NEbN), northeast (NE), northeast by east (NEbE), east-northeast (ENE), east by north (EbN), east (E), etc.
Usefulness of cardinal points
With the cardinal points thus accurately defined, by convention
North does not have to be at the top. Most
The direction of travel required to reach the intended destination is called the
Beyond geography
In mathematics, cardinal directions or cardinal points are the six principal directions or points along the x-, y- and z-axis of three-dimensional space.
In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are north, south, east, west, up and down. In this context, up and down relate to elevation, altitude, or possibly depth (if water is involved). The topographic map is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map, typically via contour lines.
In
A line (here it is a
Germanic origin of names
During the Migration Period, the Germanic languages' names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages, where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis) with north, australis (or meridionalis) with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used the Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions.[4]
- north (proto-Indo-European *nórto-s 'submerged' from the root *ner- 'left, below, to the left of the rising sun' whence comes the Ancient Greek name Nereus.[5]
- east (*aus-t-) from the word for dawn. The proto-Indo-European form is *austo-s from the root is *aues- 'shine (red)'.[6] See Ēostre.
- south (*sunþ-), derived from proto-Indo-European *sú-n-to-s from the root *seu- 'seethe, boil'.[7] Cognate with this root is the word Sun, thus "the region of the Sun."
- west (*wes-t-) from a word for "evening." The proto-Indo-European form is *uestos from the root *ues- 'shine (red)',[8] itself a form of *aues-.[9] Cognate with the root are the Latin words vesper and vesta and the Ancient Greek Hestia, Hesperus and Hesperides.
Cultural variations
In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, classical Greek culture characterized these winds as Anemoi.
In
Particular colors are associated in some traditions with the cardinal points. These are typically "natural colors" of human perception rather than optical primary colors.[vague]
Many cultures, especially in Asia, include the center as a fifth cardinal point.
Northern Eurasia
Northern Eurasia | N | E | S | W | C | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slavic
|
— | [10] | ||||
China | [11][12] | |||||
Ainu | [13][14] | |||||
Turkic | [13] | |||||
Kalmyks
|
— | [15] | ||||
Tibet | [13] |
Systems with five cardinal points include those from
cultures.In Chinese tradition, a five cardinal point system is a foundation for
Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a
- Examples
East:
- Qingdao (Tsingtao) "Green Island": a city on the east coast of China
- Red River (Asia): south of China
- Red Croatia
- Red Ruthenia
- Red Jews: a semi-mythological group of Jews
West:
- White Sheep Turkmen
- Akdeniz, meaning White Sea: Mediterranean Sea in Turkish
- Belarus, meaning White Rus' or White Ruthenia
- White Serbia
- White Croatia
- Amur River
- Kara-Khitan Khanate"Black Khitans" who originated in Northern China
- Black Ruthenia
- Black Hungarians
- Black Sea, from Turkish; located north of Turkey
- Huangshan: "Yellow Mountain" in central China
- Huang He: "Yellow River" in central China
- Golden Horde: "Central Army" of the Mongols
Arabic world
Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as Ash Shamaliyah (N), Al Gharbiyah (W), Ash Sharqiyah (E) and Al Janobiyah (S). Additionally, Al Wusta is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names (wilayahs, states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as Algarve, Portugal and Axarquía, Spain).
Native Americans
In
Indigenous Australia
Some
The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements.
Many aboriginal languages contain words for the usual four cardinal directions, but some contain words for 5 or even 6 cardinal directions.[20]
Unique (non-compound) names of intercardinal directions
In some
Sanskrit and other Indian languages that borrow from it use the names of the gods associated with each direction: east (Indra), southeast (Agni), south (Yama/Dharma), southwest (Nirrti), west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding "disha" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south).
The
Non-compass directional systems
Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in
See also
- Azimuth
- Boxing the compass for all thirty-two English-named internationally used principal points of the compass.
- Classical compass winds - an early source of cardinal directions
- Elevation – the mapping information ignored by the cardinal point system
- Geocaching – an international hobby
- Geographic Information System (GIS)
- Latitude and Longitude
- List of cartographers – about famous cartographers through history
- List of international common standards
- Magnetic deviation – to understand why a compass does not align perfectly with the Earth's north and south poles.
- Orienteering – to learn about an internationally popular hobby and sport that depends on the above knowledge for success.
- Relative direction
- Uses of trigonometry
- List of countries with directional names
Notes
References
- ^ Snyder's Medieval Art, 2nd ed. (ed. Luttikhuizen and Verkerk; Prentice Hall, 2006), pp. 226-7.
- Bibcode:1918PA.....26..373R.
rigge1918
- ^ Meadows, Peter; meadows. "Solar Observing: Parallactic Angle". Retrieved 15 November 2013.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ See e.g. Weibull, Lauritz. De gamle nordbornas väderstrecksbegrepp. Scandia 1/1928; Ekblom, R. Alfred the Great as Geographer. Studia Neophilologica 14/1941-2; Ekblom, R. Den forntida nordiska orientering och Wulfstans resa till Truso. Förnvännen. 33/1938; Sköld, Tryggve. Isländska väderstreck. Scripta Islandica. Isländska sällskapets årsbok 16/1965.
- ^ entries 765-66 of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
- ^ entries 86-7 of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
- ^ entries 914-15 of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
- ^ entries 1173 of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
- ^ entries 86-7 of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
- ^ Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedic dictionary, Kiev, 1987.
- ^ a b
"Cardinal colors in Chinese tradition". Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Chinese Cosmogony". Retrieved 17 February 2007.
- ^ a b c "Colors of the Four Directions". Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^
"Two Studies of Color". Retrieved 14 March 2008.
In Ainu... siwnin means both 'yellow' and 'blue' and hu means 'green' and 'red'
- ^ Krupp, E. C.: "Beyond the Blue Horizon: Myths and Legends of the Sun, Moon, Stars, and Planets", page 371. Oxford University Press, 1992
- ^ Anderson, Kasper Wrem; Helmke, Christophe (2013), "The Personifications of Celestial Water: The Many Guises of the Storm God in the Pantheon and Cosmology of Teotihuacan", Contributions in New World Archaeology, 5: 165–196, at pp. 177-179.
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1
- ^ Curtis, Edward S. (1922), Hodge, Frederick Webb (ed.), The Hopi, The North American Indian, vol. 12, Norwood, Mass.: The Plimpton Press, p. 246, retrieved 23 August 2014,
Hopi orientation corresponds only approximately with ours, their cardinal points being marked by the solstitial rising and setting points of the sun.... Their cardinal points therefore are not mutually equidistant on the horizon and agree roughly with our semi-cardinal points.
- ^ Ngurra-kurlu: A way of working with Warlpiri people Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu WJ, Holmes M and Box L. 2008, Desert Knowledge CRC Report 41, Alice Springs
- ^ Orientations of linear stone arrangements in New South Wales Hamacher et al., 2013, Australian Archaeology, 75, 46-54
- OCLC 716671864
- ISBN 3-87808-081-6