Upper nobility

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The Esterházy Palace in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria) - a seat of the wealthiest aristocratic family of the Kingdom of Hungary

The upper nobility (

Republic of Hungary
.

Upper nobility

In the course of the 11th to 15th centuries, only people who held specific high offices in the royal

nobility, but from the 16th century, families whose ancestors had been authorized by the monarchs to use a distinctive noble title (e.g., baron, count) formed a hereditary social class
.

Its first members descended from the leaders of the

legal
status was exclusively linked to the office they held and their offspring could not inherit it.

Frankopans
from the 14th century

In 1193, King

nobles strengthened and finally, it became enacted in 1351. From 1397, the descendants of the "barons of the realm" were referred to as "barons' sons" (filii baronum) or magnates (magnates) in official documents and from the 1430s, they received the honorific
magnificus, an expression that had earlier been used only when addressing the "barons of the realm".

The Munkács Castle (today Mukachevo in Ukraine) - the seat of Prince Fyodor Koriatovych at the turn of the 14-15th centuries

Besides the Counts Frankopan, the members of foreign

Matthias I
.

The Hunyadi Castle in Temesvár (today Timișoara in Romania), built in the 15th century

King Matthias I also rewarded his partisans with hereditary titles when he appointed them to hereditary heads of counties (hæreditarius supremus comes) and authorized them to use red

Vladislaus II
, the special legal position of certain noble families was enacted and the act referred to their members as "barons" even if they were not holding any high offices at that time.

Although in the 16th century, the

Upper House
.

Krasznahorka Castle (today Krásna Hôrka in Slovakia) - a seat of the Counts Andrássy

The Habsburg monarchs endeavoured to establish an "international" aristocracy within their empire and they granted several estates in the Kingdom of Hungary to their followers descending from their other realms and provinces; the Estates, however, managed to reserve the right that the kings could not grant offices and estates to foreigners without their authorization. From 1688, the members of the upper nobility were entitled by law to create an entail (fideicommissum) which ensured that their estates were inherited without division in contrast to the common law that prescribed that a noble's inheritance was to be divided equally among his heirs.

The "

April laws
" in 1848, but the members of the upper nobility could reserve their hereditary membership in the Upper House of the Parliament. In 1885, aristocrats who did not meet all the financial criteria set up by legislation, lost their seat in the legislative body. The Upper House was dissolved in 1918 and it was reorganized only in 1926, but thenceforward, the members of the upper nobility were only entitled to elect some representatives to the Upper House.

In 1945, the

Republic of Hungary
, the Parliament passed an act that prohibited the use of noble titles in 1946.

The tribal aristocracy (9th–11th centuries)

In the 9th century, the tribal federation of the

Magyars (Hetumoger) was composed of seven (and later, after the Kabars had joined to it, of eight) tribes (Hungarian: törzs, Greek: phyle).[1][2] The tribes were divided into 35-50 clans (Hungarian: nemzetség, Greek: genea).[3] The Magyar clans must have been organized based on the real or fictitious kinship of their members; each of them had its own name (that may have been changing from time to time) and the clans possessed separate territories within the lands occupied by the tribe they were linked to.[4] In the 9th-10th centuries, the kende, the gyula and the horka were the leaders of the Magyar tribal federation, while the tribes were headed by their own princes and each clan must have also had its own head.[5][6]

The "Horn of Lehel" - a horn traditionally connected to one of the leaders of the raids

The Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos recorded that[4]

These eight clans /the eight tribes/ of the Turks /the Magyars/ do not obey their own particular princes, but have a joint agreement to fight together with all earnestness and zeal upon the rivers, wheresoever war breaks out.

— On Administering the Empire[7]

Around 896, the Magyars invaded the

Carpathian Basin and by 902, they occupied its whole territory.[8] The Magyars made several raids to the territories of present-day Italy, Germany, France and Spain and also to the lands of the Byzantine Empire.[9][10] The regular raids contributed to the differentiation of the tribal society because the leaders of the military actions were entitled to reserve a higher share of the booty for themselves.[11] The military actions also contributed to the formation of the retinues of the heads of the tribes and the clans.[12] The Magyars were obliged to stop their regular military actions westwards following their defeat at the Battle of Augsburg on the Lech River in 955; and in 970, the raids against the Byzantine Empire also finished.[13]

Grand Duke Géza (before 972-997)

When the period of the military raids closed, the organization of the future Kingdom of Hungary commenced during the reign of

counties" that became the basic units of the royal administration.[3] Some scholars[16] claim that King Stephen I organized the "counties" on the basis of the territories possessed by the clans, but other authors[17] pointed out that the relationship between the "counties" and the Magyar clans cannot be proven.[18]

King Saint Stephen's acts ensured the private ownership of landed property; therefore, several families of the tribal aristocracy (i.e., the families of the heads of the tribes and clans) acquired the ownership of parts of the lands their clans had previously possessed.

Ajtony) could reserve a part of their ancestor's estates.[20]

Although King Stephen I made a concerted effort to strengthen the position of

lifestyle.[21]

Vata, from the castle of Selus[22], was the first among the Hungarians who devoted himself to the Devil: following pagan customs, he shaved off his head and he wore his hair in three braids. Afterwards, much later, his son, called John, gathered plenty of magicians, witches and fortune-tellers following his father's example, and because of their incantation, he became favoured by the lords.

— Chronicon Pictum

On the other hand, the Christian missionaries' efforts were not in vain, and several members of the tribal aristocracy (e.g., Csanád, one of Ajtony's former military leaders) became an ardent advocate of the Christianity; and finally, all of them who could reserve their estates integrated into the upper stratum of the Christian society following the period of the internal wars in the 1040s.[23][9]

Csanád spent the night restlessly, too; and he was praying to Saint George that he would induce the heavenly Lord to provide him assistance. And he took an oath that he would have a monastery built in his honour on the place of his prayer where he was kneeling on the soil if he triumphed over his enemy.

— The Major Legend of Bishop
Saint Gerard

The immigrant knights (10th-13th centuries)

The first knights from the western countries (mainly from the provinces of the

Latin: advena) knights continued until the end of the 13th century; several of them (e.g., the brothers Hont and Pázmány) were invited by the monarchs who offered them estates in their kingdom; others arrived in the retinues of the queens of foreign origin; while some of them was obliged to leave their country and seek shelter in the kingdom.[26]Most of the immigrant knights were horse-mounted men-at-arms thus the maintenance of their equipment required considerable financial resources that was ensured by grant of estates.[27]

I have granted lands that are sufficient to set up two villages and also a forest called Sár in Karakó county to my guests, i.e., to the valiant knights Geoffrey and Albert who had left their country and their inherited estates upon my invitation and they came honestly to the Kingdom of Hungary, because they are noble men who deserve that we hasten to help them by royal generosity.

— A deed of King Géza I (1141-1162)

Dignitaries and office-holders (11th-13th centuries)

The formation of the Royal Council

King Saint Stephen (1000/1001-1038)

The kings' (and their queens') retinues and the Royal Households became the centres where the merger of the tribal aristocracy and the immigrant knights occurred (mainly by inter-marriages) in the course of the 11-12th centuries.

Latin: consilium regium) which became the highest forum of political decision-making in the kingdom.[29]

The Council demands the seventh place by the kings' throne. It is the Council that turns kings into kings, it fixes the kings' limits, defends our realms, plans the wars, wins the victories, defeats the enemies, names the friends, builds up the states and demolishes the hostile camps. Since possibilities of great benefits are concealed beneath advices, they must not be ideas of stupid, demanding or average people, but it is required that senior councilors, who are braver and cleverer than average people and the honestest, form and perfect them.

— King Saint Stephen's Admonitions to His Son

Nevertheless, the monarchs remained the biggest

landowners in the country until the end of the 12th century and the scattered lands owned even by the wealthiest members of the kings' retinues did not form contiguous geographical units in the kingdom.[30] Based on their financial resources, the monarchs could reserve their overwhelming authority within their kingdom in the course of the 11-12th centuries: during the reign of King Géza II (1141–1162), the Bishop Otto of Freising recorded that all the Hungarians

are so obedient to the monarch that not only irritating him by open opposition but even offending him by concealed whispers would be considered for felony by them.

— Bishop Otto of Freising[31]

The heads of counties

Cistercian monastery in Bélapátfalva - a "private monastery" built in the 13th century

Among the members of the monarchs' retinues, the heads of the counties (

Latin: comes) enjoyed a distinguished position: they managed the royal revenues of the "counties" and they were entitled to one third of the revenues; moreover, they led their own retinues attached to their office.[32] They enjoyed several privileges; e.g., in their cases, the judgement was to be passed by the monarchs in person.[33]

The "ispáns" became the wealthiest and most powerful individuals in the country, but their appointment and dismissal depended exclusively upon the kings' favour and therefore, they could not form a hereditary aristocracy.

Latin: ius patronatus) for himself and for his descendants.[35]

The high-officers of the realm and of the Royal Households

The coronation of King Saint Ladislaus (1077-1095)

The first references to an organized entourage around the monarchs were recorded during the reign of King

Latin: aula regia) must have commenced earlier.[36]The existence of a separate Household of the Queens was documented for the first time in the 1190s.[37]

The gradual development of the Royal Households contributed to the establishment of a hierarchical structure within the nobility, because their high-officers held the highest positions within the kingdom.[38] In practice, they not only fulfilled their duties within the Royal Households but also became heads of "counties", probably because no specific revenues were attached to their offices in the Royal Households.[39]

The decrees of King

Latin: baron regni) when referring to the dignitaries which prove that they wanted to distinguish themselves from other nobles (e.g., from the heads of counties).[41] They, however, could not form a hereditary aristocracy, because their title was still linked to the offices they held and the monarchs had the power to dismiss them and to promote others at any time.[42][43]

Some of the high-officers commenced to fulfil judiciary functions and thus they got rid of their administrative duties within the Royal Households.[44] These high-judges and the governors of certain provinces (e.g., Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia) formed together the high-officers of the realm who enjoyed a distinguished position within the nobility:[45]

  • the
    Latin: regni Hungariæ palatinus) administered the Royal Household in the 11-12th centuries, but later, the Palatines held the highest judiciary position within the kingdom;[46][47][48]
  • the
    Latin: iudex curiæ regiæ) appeared in the documents around 1130, probably as the Palatine's deputy but later, the Judges of the Realm had their own sphere of jurisdiction;[49][50]
  • the office of the
    Fehér county and its denomination was changing before the 13th century, but thenceforward, the voivodes governed Transylvania and they appointed the heads of the "counties" in the province;[51][52]
  • the
    Latin: regni Sclavoniæ banus) was the governor of Slavonia from the 12th century;[53][54]
  • the
    Latin: regnorum Dalmatiæ et Croatiæ banus) governed the two kingdoms occupied by the kings of Hungary at the beginning of the 12th century;[1][55]
  • the
    Latin: banus Machoviensis) administered the territories of the Macsó (today Mačva in Serbia) region from the 1270s;[56][57]
  • the
    Ban of Szörény governed the territories attached to the Kingdom of Hungary around the Castle of Szörény (today Drobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania) in the 1220s;[58][59]
  • the
    Latin: magister tavernicorum) took over the financial functions of the Judge of the Realm in the 12th century but later, the tárnokmesters' own sphere of jurisdiction also developed.[60]

The list of the high-officers of the Royal Households was developing gradually from the 11th century, and their functions also changed from time to time, but by the end of the 13th century, their hierarchy become consolidated:[1]

  • the
    Latin: magister agazonum) was the head of the royal stablemen from the 11th century and later, he led the royal armies;[61]
  • the
    Latin: magister pincernarum) served wine at the kings' table and he administered the activities of the royal wine-growers;[62]
  • the
    Latin: magister dapiferorum) served dishes at the monarch's table.[63]
  • the Master of huissiers (Hungarian: Ajtónállómester, Latin : magister janitorum) [64]

The emerging power of the feudal barons (13th century)

King

Frankopan (Hungarian: Frangepán) family.[65] In his grant, the king stipulated that the Counts Frankopan would be obliged to arm some horse-mounted knights for the monarchs.[9]

King

Latin: perpetua hereditas) that passed not only from fathers to sons (or in the lack of sons, to brothers or their sons) but all the male members of owner's family could inherit them.[67] From the 1220s, several individuals commenced to refer to their clan in the official documents by using the expression de genere ("from the kindred of") following their name which suggests that the relevance even of distant kinship started to increase.[68]

The king's new policy endangered the liberties of the

royal servants owning landed property in the counties that the king had granted to his partisans.[69] Therefore, in 1222, the royal servants led by former "barons of the realm" who had been dismissed by King Andrew II enforced the king to issue the Golden Bull in order to ensure their liberties.[70][71] In the Golden Bull, the king also promised that he and his successors would not grant offices to foreigners without the consent of the Royal Council[72] The first precedent when the nobles decided on a foreigner's reception into the nobility of the kingdom was set during reign the reign of King Andrew III (1290–1301), when in 1298, the assembly of the nobility authorized the king to grant an office in the royal administration to his uncle, the Venetian Albertino Morosini.[73]

The last provision of the Golden Bull authorized the prelates and the "nobles" to resist any royal measures that could endanger their liberties confirmed by his decree.[1]

Should it happen that we or any of the kings following us acted against these arrangements of us, this charter shall authorize both the bishops and the notabilities and nobles (both the ones who are present now and who would live later and also their descendants) to whenever resist and contradict universally or individually both to us and to the kings following us without suffering the ignominy of treachery.

— Section 2 of the Article 31 of the Golden Bull (Decree of 1222) [74]
Kacsics
family built in the 13th century

Following the

familiaris in the deeds) became subordinate to them.[80] A familiaris (servant) had to swear fidelity to his dominus (lord) and he fell under his lord's jurisdiction with regard to any cases connected to their special relationship.[1] On the other hand, a familiaris reserved the ownership of his former estates and in this regard, he still fell under the jurisdiction of the royal courts of justice.[81]

Máté Csák III

From the 1290s, the most powerful barons commenced to govern their domains de facto independently of the monarchs and they usurped the

Ladislaus Kán who took advantage of the struggles among the claimants to the throne and expanded their supremacy to several counties.[83] King Charles I Robert (1308–1342) had to spend the first decades of his reign in waging wars against the most powerful oligarchs and he could strengthen his position within the kingdom only by the 1320s.[84]

The age of chivalry (14th century)

The estates King Charles I Robert acquired by force from the rebellious oligarchs made him possible to introduce a new system in the royal administration: when he appointed his followers to an office, he also granted them the possession of one or more royal castles and the royal domains attached to them, but he reserved the ownership of the castle and its belongings for himself and thus his dignitaries could only enjoy the revenues of their possessions while they held the office.

honorific magnificus vir that distinguished them from other nobles.[86]

The Castle of Újlak (today Ilok in Croatia) - the seat of the Újlaki family

During his reign, members of new families attained the status of "barons of the realm"; some of the ancestors of the new families (e.g., that of the

Szécsi families) descended from clans whose members had already held high-offices in the 13th century[87][88]

The king introduced a new royal prerogative in 1332 when he entitled Margaret de genere Nádasd to inherit her father's possessions in contradiction to the customs of the kingdom prescribing that daughters can inherit only one-fourth of their father's estates and the other parts of the estates should pass to his

Latin: præfectio) and thus entitling their wives to inherit their fathers' possessions.[90] King Charles I Robert also set himself against the customs of the kingdom, when he granted landed property to his followers but he stipulated that the property could only be inherited by their descendants and thus he excluded their agnates from the inheritance.[91]

King Charles I Robert endeavoured the implementation of the ideas of

coat-of-arms (címer) derives from the French expression for the crest (cimier).[1]

In 1351, King

Lackfi families attained the status of "baron of the realm".[98]

The rule of the barons' leagues

King Sigismund (1387-1437)

Following the death of King Louis I, his daughter Queen

Mary I (1382–1385, 1386–1395) acceded to the throne, but the majority of the nobles opposed her rule.[99] In 1385, the young queen had to abdicate in favor of her distant cousin, King Charles II (1385–1386), but her partisans murdered the new king soon and thus she could ascend the throne again.[100] However, the followers of her murdered opponent's son, King Ladislaus of Naples rose up in open rebellion and captured her; thus the realm stayed without a monarch.[101]

At that moment, the prelates and the "barons of the realm" set up a council; they have a seal prepared with the inscription "Seal of the People of the Kingdom of Hungary" (

Latin: Sigillum regnicolarum regni Hungariæ) and issued decrees sealed by it in the name of the "prelates, barons, notabilities and all nobles of the realm".[102] The members of the council entered into a contract with Queen Mary's fiancé and elected him king; in the contract, King Sigismund (1387–1437) accepted that his

councillors shall be the prelates, the barons, their offsprings and heirs, of those who used to be the councillors of the kings of Hungary[103]

The contract also recorded that the king and his councillors would form a league and according to their contract, the king could not dismiss his councillors without the consent of the other members of the Royal Council.

Stephen II Lackfi and the Archbishop John Kanizsai, but the latter could drive the former out of the power in 1397.[105] However, King Sigismund favorized his councillors of foreign origin (e.g., his favourite was the Polish Stibor of Stiboricz) which resulted in his imprisonment, in 1401, by the discontent members of the Royal Council led by the Archbishop John Kanizsai, but he managed to conclude a new agreement with some members of the Royal Council who set him free.[83]

Reconstruction of the insignia of the Order of the Dragon

The

Latin: magnates). From the 1430s, the "magnates" received the honorific magnificus, an expression that had earlier been used only when addressing the "barons of the realm".[106]

During his reign, King Sigismund granted several royal castles and the royal domains attached to them to the members of the barons' leagues; by 1407, the number of royal castles decreased from 111 to 66.

Hermann II of Celje, Stibor of Stiboricz and the Despot Stefan Lazarević) swore fidelity to the king, his queen and their future children.[108][109]

Some signs of the increasing self-consciousness of the "magnates" appeared in the 1420s.[1] Some of them commenced to use names that referred to the high office their ancestors had held; e.g., the members of the Losonci family started to call themselves Bánfi meaning the "son of a Ban" in reference to their forefather who had been the Ban of Dalmatia and Croatia.[110] Other magnates clearly referred to their descent from former "barons of the realm" in their deeds or used noble titles (such as "count" or "duke") abroad following the example of the western nobility although the public law of the kingdom did not accept their claim to distinctive titles.[111]

When King Sigismund's son-in-law,

Royal Assent.[114] When the monarch (or the regent) convoked the Diet, he sent a personal invitation to the prelates, "barons of the realm" and "magnates" and they attended in person at the assembly, while other nobles were usually represented by their deputies.[83] Consequently, the Diets were dominated by the "magnates" not only because of their personal presence, but also because of the tendency that the counties elected their partisans as their own delegates.[115]

In 1445, the Diet elected seven

Latin: generalis capitaneus) in order to govern the kingdom during the absence of King Vladislaus I (who actually had fallen in the Battle of Varna).[116] In 1446, the assembly of the Estates proclaimed John Hunyadi to Regent and he was to govern the realm in cooperation with the Estates until 1453 when King Ladislaus V returned to the kingdom.[117]

John Hunyadi was the first temporal "magnate" who received a hereditary title from a king of Hungary: in 1453, King Ladislaus V appointed him the hereditary head (

Beszterce county (now Bistriţa in Romania) and thus he became a count in the sense similar to the title's usage in the western countries.[118] Although, some of the immigrant "magnates"[119] had already used honorary titles before and they were often mentioned even in official documents with a reference to their title,[120] but their title was granted by foreign monarchs and the public law in the Kingdom of Hungary did not recognize any special privileges connected to it.[citation needed
]

The legal separation of the hereditary aristocracy

Matthias I the Just
(1458-1490)

John Hunyadi's son,

Matthias I (1458–1490) was proclaimed king by the Estates, but he had to wage war against Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor who claimed the throne for himself.[121] Several magnates supported the emperor's claim and proclaimed him king against King Matthias; the emperor rewarded the brothers Sigismund and John of Szentgyörgy and Bazin with the hereditary noble title "count of the Holy Roman Empire" in 1459 and thus they became entitled to use red sealing wax.[122][116] Although the Counts Szentgyörgyi commenced to use their title in their deeds, but in the Kingdom of Hungary, public law did not distinguish them from other nobles.[1]

King Matthias I also rewarded his partisans with hereditary titles and appointed them hereditary heads of counties: John Vitovec became the hereditary head of Zagorje county in 1463; Emeric Szapolyai received the honor of

Turóc county respectively; in the 1480s, Nicholas Bánffy de Alsólendva and Peter and Matthias Geréb received such hereditary titles.[123][124] The hereditary heads of counties were entitled, similarly to the "counts of the Holy Roman Empire", to use red sealing was.[125] Moreover, during his reign, all the members of the wealthier families descending from the "barons of the realm" received the honorific magnificus which was a next step towards their separation from other nobles.[126]

Vladislaus II the "Dobže"
(1490-1516)

In 1487, a new expression appeared in a deed of

Latin: barones natureles in Hungaria) in contrast to the "barons of the realm" who were still the holders of the highest offices in the public administration and the Royal Households.[1] One of the 19 families (the Újlaki family) was styled "duke" in the deed, while other four families were styled "count" - the latter group included the Szentgyörgyi family which suggests that King Matthias accepted the title his opponent had granted to them.[128]

During the reign of King

Lawrence Újlaki and the Honourable Lords, Stephen Szapolyai (hereditary head of Szepes county, Palatine of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Judge of the Cumans), the Counts of Szentgyörgy and Basin, the Counts Frankopan and of Corbavia
and Lord Peter Geréb de Vingárt (the Judge of His Majesty's Court) and other lord barons who are obliged (together with the above-mentioned lord prelates and officers of the realm) to struggle according to the number of their villeins.

— Article 22 of the Act of 1498

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  96. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 193.
  97. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 60.
  98. ^ Kristó 1994, pp. 87, 142, 391.
  99. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 123.
  100. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 124.
  101. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 125.
  102. ^ Fügedi 1986, pp. 285–286.
  103. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 288.
  104. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 289.
  105. ISBN 963-281-414-2
    .
  106. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 172.
  107. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 322.
  108. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 309.
  109. ^ Mályusz 1984, pp. 59–90.
  110. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 359.
  111. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 361.
  112. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 198.
  113. ^ Engel et al. 1998, pp. 199–202.
  114. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 195.
  115. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 196.
  116. ^
    ISBN 963-05-2661-1
    .
  117. ^ Benda 1981, pp. 266, 270.
  118. ^ Benda 1981, p. 270.
  119. ^ E.g., Prince Fyodor Koriatovych, the counts Hermann and Ulrich of Cille and the Despots Stefan Lazarević and George Branković.
  120. ^ E.g., Article 25 of the Act of 1439 and Article 9 of the Act of 1454.
  121. ^ Benda 1981, p. 276.
  122. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 381.
  123. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 381–382.
  124. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 227.
  125. ^ Fügedi 1986, p. 382.
  126. ^ Engel et al. 1998, p. 226.
  127. ^ The families Bánfi de Alsólendva, Báthory, de Corbavia (Korbáviai), Ellerbach, Ernuszt, Garai, Frankopan (Frangepán), Héderváry, Losonci, Móric de Meggyesalja, Ország de Gut, Paksi, Paumkirchner, Perényi, Rozgonyi, Szapolyai, Szentgyörgyi, Újlaki (Fügedi, Erik op. cit. p. 385).
  128. ^ Fügedi 1986, pp. 383–385.
  129. ^ The families Bánfi de Alsólendva, Bánfi de Bolondóc, Báthory, Bebek, Beriszló, Both de Bajna, Branković (Brankovics), de Corbavia (Korbáviai), Drágffy, Drugeth, Ellerbach, Ernuszt, Frankopán (Frangepán), Geréb de Vingárt, Héderváry, Jakich de Nagylak, Kanizsai, Lévai, Losonci, Kompolth de Gut, Ongor de Nádasd, Ország de Nána, Paumkirchner, Pálóczi, Perényi, Pongrácz de Dengeleg, Ráskai, Rozgonyi, Szapolyai, Szentgyörgyi, Szécsi, Szokoli, Újlaki (Article 22 of the Act of 1498).
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