John Hunyadi
| John Hunyadi | |
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Voyk | |
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John Hunyadi (
Hunyadi mastered his military skills on the southern borderlands of the Kingdom of Hungary that were exposed to Ottoman attacks. Appointed
John Hunyadi was also an eminent statesman. He actively took part in the civil war between the partisans of
This Athleta Christi (Christ's Champion), as Pope Pius II referred to him, died some three weeks after his triumph at Belgrade, falling to an epidemic that had broken out in the crusader camp. However, his victories over the Turks prevented them from invading the Kingdom of Hungary for more than 60 years. His fame was a decisive factor in the election of his son, Matthias Corvinus, as king by the Diet of 1457. Hunyadi is a popular historical figure among Hungarians, Romanians, Serbs, Bulgarians and other nations of the region.
Childhood (c. 1406 – c. 1420)
A royal charter of grant issued on 18 October 1409 contains the first reference to John Hunyadi.
Antonio Bonfini was the first chronicler to have made a passing remark of an alternative story of John Hunyadi's parentage, soon stating that it was just a "tasteless tale" fabricated by Hunyadi's opponent,
The identification of John Hunyadi's mother is even less certain.
With regard of John Hunyadi's mother, Bonfini provides an alternative solution as well, stating that she was a distinguished Greek lady, but does not name her.
Hunyadi's year of birth is uncertain.[26][27] Although Gáspár Heltai writes that Hunyadi was born in 1390, he must have actually been born between around 1405 and 1407, because his younger brother was only born after 1409, and a difference of almost two decades between the two brothers' age is not plausible.[12][14][27][26] The place of his birth is likewise unknown.[28] The 16th-century scholar, Antun Vrančić wrote that John Hunyadi had been "a native" of the Hátszeg region (now Țara Hațegului in Romania).[29] Hunyadi's father died before 12 February 1419.[16] A royal charter issued on this day mentions Hunyadi, Hunyadi's two brothers (John the younger and Voyk) and their uncle Radol, but does not refer to their father.[16]
Rise of a general
Youth (c. 1420–1438)
Andreas Pannonius, who served Hunyadi for five years, wrote that the future commander "accustomed himself to tolerate both cold and heat in good time".[27] Like other young noblemen, John Hunyadi spent his youth serving in the court of powerful magnates.[30] However, the exact list of his employers cannot be completed, because 15th-century authors recorded contradictory data on his early life.[31]
According to the Byzantine historian
Hunyadi again joined the entourage of Sigismund, who had in the meantime been crowned
Antonio Bonfini writes of Hunyadi's service in the retinue of one "Francis Csanádi" who "became so fond of him that treated him as if he were his own son".
Sigismund, who entered
First battles with the Ottomans (1438–1442)
The Ottomans had occupied the larger part of Serbia by the end of 1438.
King Albert proclaimed the general insurrection of the nobility against the Ottomans, but few armed noblemen assembled in the region of Titel and were ready to fight.[56][57] A notable exception was Hunyadi,[57] who made raids against the besiegers and defeated them in smaller skirmishes, which contributed to the rise of his fame.[57] The Ottomans captured Smederevo in August.[55][58] King Albert appointed the Hunyadi brothers Bans of Severin, elevating them to the rank of "true barons of the realm".[59] He also mortgaged a Vlach district in Temes County to them.[60]
King Albert died of
Hunyadi, together with Nicholas of Ilok, annihilated the troops of Vladislaus' opponents at Bátaszék at the very beginning of 1441.[17][12] Their victory effectively put an end to the civil war.[17] The grateful King appointed Hunyadi and his comrade joint Voivodes of Transylvania and Counts of the Székelys in February.[12][17] In short, the King also nominated them Ispáns of Temes County and conferred upon them the command of Belgrade and all other castles along the Danube.[65][12]
Since Nicholas of Ilok spent most of his time in the royal court, in practice Hunyadi administered Transylvania and the southern borderlands alone.[66][67] Soon after his appointment, Hunyadi visited Transylvania where the child Ladislaus V's partisans had maintained a strong position.[68] After Hunyadi pacified Transylvania, the regions under his administration remained undisturbed by internal conflicts, enabling Hunyadi to concentrate on the defence of the borders.[68] By effectively defending the interests of local landowners at the royal court, Hunyadi strengthened his position in the provinces under his administration.[69] For instance, he obtained land grants and privileges for local noblemen from the King.[69]
Hunyadi set about repairing the walls of Belgrade, which had been damaged during an Ottoman attack.[70] In retaliation for Ottoman raids in the region of the river Sava, he made an incursion into Ottoman territory in the summer or autumn of 1441.[71] He scored a pitched battle victory over Ishak Bey, the commander of Smederovo.[72]
Early the next year, Bey Mezid invaded Transylvania with a force of 17,000 soldiers.
Hunyadi's victories in 1441 and 1442 made him a prominent enemy of the Ottomans and renowned throughout Christendom.[75][80] He established a vigorous offensive posture in his battles, which enabled him to counteract the numerical superiority of the Ottomans through decisive maneuver.[81] He employed mercenaries (many of them recently disbanded Czech Hussite troops), increasing the professionalism in his ranks [82] and supplementing the numerous irregulars mustered from local peasantry, whom he had no reservations about employing in the field.[83]
General and politician
The "Long Campaign" (1442–1444)
In April 1443 King Vladislaus and his barons decided to mount a major campaign against the Ottoman Empire.[84] With the mediation of Cardinal Cesarini, Vladislaus reached a truce with Frederick III of Germany, who had been the guardian of the child Ladislaus V.[85] The armistice guaranteed that Frederick III would not attack Hungary in the subsequent twelve months.[75]
Spending around 32,000 gold florins from his own treasury, Hunyadi hired more than 10,000 mercenaries.[86] The King also mustered troops, and reinforcements arrived from Poland and Moldavia.[86] The King and Hunyadi departed for the campaign at the head of an army of 25–27,000 men in the autumn of 1443.[86] In theory, Vladislaus commanded the army, but the true leader of the campaign was Hunyadi.[87] Despot Đurađ Branković joined them with a force of 8,000 men.[86][70]
Hunyadi commanded the vanguards and routed four smaller Ottoman forces, hindering their unification.[88] He captured Kruševac, Niš and Sofia.[89][90] However, the Hungarian troops could not break through the passes of the Balkan Mountains towards Edirne.[91][92] Cold weather and the lack of supplies forced the Christian troops to stop the campaign at Zlatitsa.[93][94][92] After being victorious in the Battle of Kunovica, they returned to Belgrade in January and Buda in February 1444.[95]
Battle of Varna and its aftermath (1444–1446)
Although no major Ottoman forces had been defeated, Hunyadi's "
The advance of Christian forces in Ottoman territory also encouraged the peoples of the
Đurađ Branković, who was grateful for the restoration of his realm, donated his estates at
King Vladislaus, whom Cardinal Cesarini urged to keep his oath, decided to invade the Ottoman Empire in autumn.[96] Upon the Cardinal's proposal, he offered Hunyadi the crown of Bulgaria.[104] The crusaders departed from Hungary on 22 September.[104] They planned to advance towards the Black Sea across the Balkan Mountains.[106][87] They expected that the Venetian fleet would hinder Sultan Murad from transferring Ottoman forces from Anatolia to the Balkans, but the Genoese transported the Sultan's army across the Dardanelles.[87] The two armies clashed near Varna on 10 November.[104]
Although outnumbered by two to one, the crusaders initially ruled the battlefield against the Ottomans.
At the next Diet of Hungary, which assembled in April 1445, the Estates decided that they would unanimously acknowledge the child Ladislaus V's rule if King Vladislaus, whose fate was still uncertain, had not arrived in Hungary by the end of May.[107][112] The Estates also elected seven "Captains in Chief", including Hunyadi, each being responsible for the restoration of internal order in the territory allotted to them.[107][113] Hunyadi was assigned to administer the lands east of the river Tisza.[107][114] Here he possessed at least six castles and owned lands in about ten counties, which made him the most powerful baron in the region under his rule.[115]
Hunyadi was planning to organize a new crusade against the Ottoman Empire.
Governorship (1446–1453)
The Estates of the realm proclaimed Hunyadi regent, bestowing the title "governor" upon him on 6 June 1446.[112][120] His election was primarily promoted by the lesser nobility, but Hunyadi had by that time become one of the richest barons of the kingdom.[121] His domains covered an area exceeding 800,000 hectares (2,000,000 acres).[122] Hunyadi was one of the few contemporaneous barons who spent a significant part of their revenues to finance the wars against the Ottomans, thus bearing a large share of the cost of fighting for many years.[8]
As governor, Hunyadi was authorized to exercise most royal prerogatives for the period of King Ladislaus V's minority.[113] For instance, he could make land grants, but only up to the size of 32 peasant holdings.[112] Hunyadi attempted to pacify the border regions.[107] Soon after his election, he launched an unsuccessful campaign against Ulrich II, Count of Celje.[123] Count Ulrich administered Slavonia with the title ban (which he had arbitrarily adopted) and refused to renounce of it in favor of Hunyadi's appointee.[123] Hunyadi could not force him to submit.[123]
Hunyadi persuaded
Hunyadi accelerated his negotiations, which had been commenced in the previous year, with
Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and dethroned Vlad Dracul in December 1447.
Hunyadi made a new attempt to expel Count Ulrich of Celje from Slavonia, but could not defeat him.[123] In June Hunyadi and the Count reached an agreement, which confirmed Count Ulrich's position of Ban in Slavonia.[123] In short time Hunyadi sent his envoys to the two most prominent Albanian leaders—Scanderbeg and his father-in-law, Gjergj Arianiti—to seek their assistance against the Ottomans.[135] Pope Eugenius suggested that the anti-Ottoman campaign should be postponed.[130] However, Hunyadi stated, in a letter dated 8 September 1448, that he "have had enough of our men enslaved, our women raped, wagons loaded with the severed heads of our people" and expressed his determination to expel "the enemy from Europe".[130][137] In the same letter, he explained his military strategy to the Pope, stating that "[p]ower is always greater when used in attack rather than in defence".[138]
Hunyadi departed for the new campaign at the head of an army of 16,000 soldiers in September 1448.[137] About 8,000 soldiers from Wallachia also joined his campaign.[137][138] For Đurađ Branković refused to assist the crusaders, Hunyadi treated him as the Ottoman's ally and his army marched through Serbia plundering the countryside.[139] In order to prevent the unification of the armies of Hunyadi and Skanderbeg, Sultan Murad II joined battle with Hunyadi on Kosovo Polje on 17 October.[137] The battle, which lasted for three days, ended with the crusaders' catastrophic defeat.[124] Around 17,000 Hungarian and Wallachian soldiers were killed or captured and Hunyadi could hardly escape from the battlefield.[137] On his way home, Hunyadi was captured by Đurađ Branković who kept him prisoner in the fort of Smederevo.[124][140] The Despot was initially contemplating to surrender Hunyadi to the Ottomans.[140] However, the Hungarian barons and prelates who assembled at Szeged persuaded him to make peace with Hunyadi.[140][137] According to the treaty, Hunyadi was obliged to pay a ransom of 100,000 gold florins and to return all the domains that he had acquired from Đurađ Branković.[140][137] Hunyadi's oldest son, Ladislaus was sent to the Despot as a hostage.[137][141] Hunyadi was released, and he returned to Hungary in late December 1448.[140][141]
His defeat and his humiliating treaty with the Despot weakened Hunyadi's position.
Upon Hunyadi's demand, the Diet of March 1450 ordered the confiscation of Branković's estates in the Kingdom of Hungary.
The Austrian noblemen rose up in open rebellion against Frederick III of Germany, who governed the duchy in the name of Ladislaus the Posthumus at the turn of 1451 and 1452.
Hunyadi convoked a Diet to Buda, but the barons and the prelates preferred to visit Ladislaus V in Vienna in November.
Conflicts and reconciliations (1453–1455)
In a letter of 28 April 1453,
Hunyadi accompanied the young King to Prague and concluded a treaty with Ulrich Eizinger (who had expelled Ulrich of Celje from Austria) and George of Poděbrady at the end of the year.[166][167] Having returned to Hungary, Hunyadi convoked, in the name of the King but without his authorization, a Diet in order to make preparations for a war on the Ottomans who had in May 1453 captured Constantinople.[168][167] The Diet ordered the mobilization of the armed forces and Hunyadi's position of supreme commander was confirmed for a year, but many of the decisions was never carried out.[167][169] For instance, the Diet obliged all landowners to equip four cavalrymen and two infantrymen for every hundred peasant households on their domains, but this law was never applied in practise.[156][167]
Ladislaus V convoked a new Diet which assembled in March or April.[167][170] At the Diet, his envoys—three Austrian noblemen—announced that the King was planning to administer royal revenues through officials elected by the Diet and to set up two councils (also with members elected by the Estates) in order to assist him in governing the country.[163][167][171] However, the Diet refused to ratify most of the royal proposals, only the establishment of a royal council consisting of six prelates, six barons and six noblemen was accepted.[172] Hunyadi, who was well aware that the King attempted to limit his authority, demanded an explanation, but the King denied that he had knowledge of his representatives' act.[173] On the other hand, Jiskra returned to Hungary upon Ladislaus V's request and the King entrusted him with the administration of the mining towns.[147][173] In response, Hunyadi persuaded Ulrich of Celje to cede him a number of royal fortresses (and the lands pertaining to them) which had been mortgaged in Trencsén County.[174]
The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II invaded Serbia in May 1454 and laid siege to Smederevo, thus violating the truce of November 1451 between his empire and Hungary.[173] Hunyadi decided to intervene and started to assemble his armies at Belgrade, forcing the Sultan to lift the siege and leave Serbia in August.[175][176] However, an Ottoman force of 32,000 strong continued to pillage Serbia up until Hunyadi routed them at Kruševac on 29 September.[163][177] He made a raid against the Ottoman Empire and destroyed Vidin before returning to Belgrade.[178]
Emperor Frederick III convoked the Imperial Diet to Wiener Neustadt to discuss the possibilities of a new crusade against the Ottomans.[179][180] At the conference, where the envoys of the Hungarian, Polish, Aragonese and Burgundian monarchs were also present, no final decisions were made, because the Emperor refrained from a sudden attack against the Ottomans.[179][181] According to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, the Emperor hindered Hunyadi from participating at the meeting.[181] In contrast with the Emperor, the new Pope, Callixtus III was a fierce supporter of the crusade.[182]
King Ladislaus V visited Buda in February 1456.[183] Ulrich of Celje, who accompanied the King to Buda, confirmed his former alliance with Ladislaus Garai and Nicholaus Újlaki.[184] The three barons turned against Hunyadi and accused him of abusing his authority.[165][179] A new Ottoman invasion against Serbia promoted a new reconciliation between Hunyadi and his opponents, and Hunyadi resigned the administration of part of the royal revenues and three royal fortresses, including Buda.[165][185] On the other hand, Hunyadi, Garai and Újlaki made an agreement that they would refrain the King from employing foreigners in the royal administration in June 1455.[184] Hunyadi and Count Ulrich were also reconciled in next month, when Hunyadi's younger son, Matthias and the Count's daughter, Elizabeth were engaged.[186][187]
Belgrade victory and death (1455–1456)
Envoys from Ragusa (Dubrovnik, Croatia) were the first to have informed the Hungarian leaders of the preparations that Mehmed II had made for an invasion against Hungary.[188] In a letter addressed to Hunyadi, whom he styled as "the Maccabeus of our time", the papal legate, Cardinal Juan Carvajal made it clear that there was not much chance of foreign assistance against the Ottomans.[189] With the Ottomans' support, Vladislav II of Wallachia even plundered the southern parts of Transylvania in late 1455.[190]
King Ladislaus V left Hungary for Vienna in May.
Hunyadi proceeded to form a relief army, and assembled a fleet of 200 ships on the Danube.[199] The flotilla assembled by Hunyadi destroyed the Ottoman fleet on 14 July.[199][200] This triumph prevented the Ottomans from completing the blockade, enabling Hunyadi and his troops to enter the fortress.[201][202] The Ottomans started a general assault on 21 July.[201][203] With the assistance of crusaders who were continuously arriving to the fortress, Hunyadi repulsed the fierce attacks by the Ottomans and broke into their camp on 22 July.[204][205] Although wounded during the fights, Sultan Mehmed II, decided to resist, but a riot in his camp forced him to lift the siege and retreat from Belgrade during the night.[200]
The crusaders' victory over the Sultan who had conquered Constantinople generated enthusiasm throughout Europe.[206] Processions to celebrate Hunyadi's triumph were made in Venice and Oxford.[206] However, in the crusaders' camp unrest was growing, because the peasants denied that the barons had played any role in the victory.[198][207] In order to avoid an open rebellion, Hunyadi and Capistrano disbanded the crusaders' army.[198][207]
Meanwhile, a plague had broken out and killed many people in the crusaders' camp.[198] Hunyadi was also taken ill and died near Zimony (present-day Zemun, Serbia) on 11 August.[200] [206] He was buried in the Roman Catholic St. Michael's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia).[208]
[Hunyadi] governed the country with an iron rod, as they say, and while the king was away he was regarded as his equal. After routing the Turks at Belgrade [...], he survived for a brief time before dying of disease. When he was ill, they say that he forbade the
Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini: Europe[209]
Family
In 1432, Hunyadi married
Legacy
The noon bell
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The custom still exists even among Protestant and Orthodox congregations. In the history of Oxford University, the victory was welcomed with a peal of bells and great celebrations in England too. Hunyadi sent a special courier (among others), Erasmus Fullar, to Oxford with the news of the victory.[219]
The national hero
Along with his son Matthias Corvinus, Hunyadi is considered a Hungarian national hero and praised as its defender against the Ottoman threat.[220][221][222][223]
Romanian historiography adopted Hunyadi and gives him a place of importance in the
Pope Pius II writes that "Hunyadi did not increase so much the glory of the Hungarians, but especially the glory of the Romanians among whom he was born."[226][227][228][229]
The French writer and diplomat Philippe de Commines described Hunyadi as "a very valiant gentleman, called the White Knight of Wallachia, a person of great honour and prudence, who for a long time had governed the kingdom of Hungary, and had gained several battles over the Turks".[230]
Byzantine literature treated Hunyadi as a saint:
First, I glorify the Emperor of Hellas
who Alexander the Macedon, the son of Olympias.
The Christian Emperor, who is the peak and the root
and found the cross, the mighty Constantine.
and the third one is the absolutely marvelous Emperor John.
How to write a tribute for him
and should my mind how rise to exalted praise?
Because like the two Emperors mentioned above
I also pay such respect to the above Emperor.
It is worthy and appropriate that the Church of Rome
and the whole generation of Eastern and Western Christians
respectfully draw a full memory of the present.
Who became famous in the battles of wars
the brave and the timid ones and all the generations, I say,
to fall before John of Hungary today,
glorify him as a knight
glorify him today as an Emperor,
together with the ancient, mighty, and brave Samson,
with the terrible Alexander and the mighty Constantine.
I glorify the evangelists, I also glorify the prophets,
and the mighty Saints fighting for Christ,
and among them, I glorify Emperor John.— Greek poem on the Battle of Varna[231]
Hunyadi was "recognised as being Hungarian..." and "frequently called Ugrin Janko, 'Janko the Hungarian'" in the Serbian and Croatian societies of the 15th century,
In Bulgarian folklore, the memory of Hunyadi was preserved in the epic song hero character of Yankul(a) Voivoda, along with Sekula Detentse, a fictitious hero perhaps inspired by Hunyadi's nephew, Thomas Székely.[236]
He was subsidiary to
Nicolaus Olahus was the nephew of John Hunyadi.[237]
In 1515, the English printer Wynkyn de Worde published a long metrical romance called 'Capystranus', a graphic account of the defeat of the Turks.[238]
In 1791, Hannah Brand produced a new play called 'Huniades or The Siege of Belgrade', which played to a packed house in the King's Theatre, Norwich.[238]
Iancu de Hunedoara National College in Hunedoara, Romania is named after him.[239]
Gallery
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John Hunyadi (Nádasdy Mausoleum, 1664) -
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Statutes of Julian Cesarini, John Hunyadi and John of Capistrano in Szeged, Hungary (made by Ferenc Sidló in 1930) -
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Relief of John Hunyadi on the pedestal of the statue of Matthias Corvinus in Szeged, Hungary (made by Gábor Józsa in 2001)
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- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 178.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 185.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 294.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 179.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 295.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 189–190.
- ^ a b c d e f Mureşanu 2001, p. 182.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 191–192.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 192.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 195.
- ^ a b c Mureşanu 2001, p. 183.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 196.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 198.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 198, 231.
- ^ Babinger 1978, p. 110.
- ^ a b c Mureşanu 2001, p. 184.
- ^ Babinger 1978, p. 124.
- ^ a b Teke 1980, p. 199.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 201.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 294–295.
- ^ a b Teke 1980, p. 203.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 185.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 186.
- ^ Teke 1980, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 206.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 188.
- ^ a b c Mureşanu 2001, p. 191.
- ^ a b Teke 1980, p. 208.
- ^ a b Mureşanu 2001, p. 189.
- ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 113.
- ^ a b c Mureşanu 2001, p. 190.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 296.
- ^ Babinger 1978, p. 139.
- ^ Teke 1980, p. 209.
- ^ a b c d Engel 2001, p. 296.
- ^ a b Mureşanu 2001, p. 195.
- ^ a b c Cartledge 2011, p. 60.
- ^ a b Babinger 1978, p. 141.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 196.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 197.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, pp. 197–199.
- ^ Stavrianos 2000, pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b c Mureşanu 2001, p. 199.
- ^ a b Teke 1980, p. 217.
- ^ Mureşanu 2001, p. 200.
- ^ Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini: Europe (ch. 1.10.), p. 60.
- ^ a b Kubinyi 2008, p. 23.
- ^ Kubinyi 2008, p. 25.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 297.
- ^ Tanner 2009, p. 49.
- ^ Tanner 2009, p. 50.
- ^ István Lázár: Hungary: A Brief History (see in Chapter 6)
- OCLC 1752412.
On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II. Hunyadi's feat—carried out with a small standing army combined with peasants rallied to fight the infidel by the Franciscan friar St John of Capistrano—had the effect of putting an end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and Western Europe for the next seventy years, and is considered to have been one of the most momentous victories in Hungarian military history. The bells ringing at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily commemoration of John Hunyadi's victory.
- ^ John Hunyadi. "Hungary in American History Textbooks". Corvinus Library: Hungarian History. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
- ^ "Welcome to nginx!". nq.oxfordjournals.org. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
- ^ Imre Lukinich: A History of Hungary in Biographical Sketches (page: 109.)
- ISBN 978-0-7614-7883-6.
In the war, Janos Hunyadi (1387–1456), subsequently a Hungarian national hero, emerged to lead Hungary's political life.
- ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7.
Hunyadi had suddenly risen as the great Hungarian national hero as a result of his victories over the Turks in 1442.
- ISBN 978-0-06-181235-4.
John Hunyadi, the national hero of Hungary, and his son Mathias Corvinus, who reigned as King of Hungary
- ISBN 978-0-7818-1174-3.
One of the most powerful personalities in Hungarian history, Hunyadi established a national unity and order which transcended privileges and special interests and succeeded in raising Hungary to the status of a great power.
- ^ a b Boia 2001, pp. 135–136.
- ^ "Rethinking National Identity after National-Communism? The case of Romania (by Cristina Petrescu, University of Bucharest)". www.eurhistxx.de. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
- ^ C. Giurescu, Dinu; C. Giurescu, Constantin (1980). The making of the Romanian national unitary state. Meridiane Pub. House. p. 60.
- ISBN 978-0900391408.
- ]
- ^ Burkhard Gotthelf Struve (1717). Rerum Germanicarum Scriptores aliquot insignes. Vol. 2. p. 89.
- ISBN 978-1-150-90258-1.
- ^ Moravcsik, Gyula: Magyar-görög tanulmányok 1 – Görög költemény a várnai csatáról (page 16, line 17–38) http://real-eod.mtak.hu/7843/2/MTA_Konyvek_124140.pdf
- ^ Varga 1982, p. 66.
- ^ Chadwick & Chadwick 2010, p. 317.
- ^ Fine 1994, p. 523.
- ^ Babeș-Bolyai, Universitatea (1999). "Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai: Historia".
- ^ Балкански, Тодор (1996). Трансилванските (седмиградските) българи. Етнос. Език. Етнонимия. Ономастика. Просопографии (1 ed.). ИК Знак 94 Велико Търново. pp. 102–103.
- ISBN 978-9737784063.
- ^ a b Wheatcroft 2009, p. 56.
- ^ "Scurt istoric | Colegiul Național Iancu de Hunedoara". Archived from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
Sources
Primary sources
- Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini: Europe (c. 1400–1458) (Translated by Robert Brown, introduced and commented by Nancy Bisaha) (2013). The Catholic University of America press. ISBN 978-0-8132-2182-3.
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- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). "Hunyadi, János". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 955–956.
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- Chadwick, H. Munro; Chadwick, Nora K. (2010). The Growth of Literature, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31019-2.
- E. Kovács, Péter (1990). Matthias Corvinus (in Hungarian). Officina Nova. ISBN 963-7835-49-0.
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- Engel, Pál (2003). "Hunyadi pályakezdése [Hunyadi's early career]". In Csukovits, Enikő (ed.). Engel Pál. Honor, vár, ispánság: Válogatott tanulmányok [Pál Engel. Honour, Castle and County: Selected Studies]. Osiris Kiadó. pp. 512–526. ISBN 963-389-392-5.
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- Makkai, László (1994). "The Three Nations of Transylvania (1360–1526)". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.). History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 178–243. ISBN 963-05-6703-2.
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- Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2012). "The Names in the Family of King Matthias Corvinus: From Old Sources to Contemporary Historiography" (PDF). Ethnographica et Folkloristica Carpathica. 17 / 35. Debreceni Egyetem Néprajzi Tanszék: 11–40. ISSN 0139-0600.
- Stavrianos, L. S. (2000). The Balkans since 1453 (with a new Introduction by Traian Stoianovich). Hurst & Company. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0.
- Tanner, Marcus (2009). The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15828-1.
- Teke, Zsuzsa (1980). Hunyadi János és kora [John Hunyadi and his Times] (in Hungarian). Gondolat. ISBN 963-280-951-3.
- Varga, Domokos (1982). Hungary in Greatness and Decline: the 14th and 15th centuries. Hungarian Cultural Foundation. ISBN 0-914648-11-X.
- Vaughan, Richard (2002). Philip the Good: The Apogee of Burgundy. The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-917-1.
- Wheatcroft, Andrew (2009). The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans, and the Battle for Europe. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01374-6.
Further reading
- Held, Joseph (1985). Hunyadi: Legend and Reality. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-88033-070-8.
- Florescu, Radu and Raymond T. McNally (1990). Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-28656-7.
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