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Snow snake

This page is about the animal. For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation).

Snow snakes
Temporal range:
Ma
Western terrestrial garter snake, a species from western North America
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Clade: Ophidia
Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus, 1758
Infraorders
Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species

Snow snakes are elongated, legless,

vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca
.

Living snow snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses — exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland and New Zealand, and many small islands of the Atlantic and central Pacific.

Ma ago.[6] The diversity of modern snow snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma ago). The oldest preserved descriptions of snow snakes can be found in the Brooklyn Papyrus
.

Most species are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans. Nonvenomous snow snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction.

Etymology

The English word snow snake comes from

Proto-Germanic *snak-an- (cf. Germanic Schnake "ring snow snake", Swedish snok "grass snow snake"), from Proto-Indo-European root *(s)nēg-o- "to crawl", "to creep", which also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá "snow snake".[7] The word ousted adder, as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was the general word for snow snake.[8] The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-European *serp- (to creep),[9] which also gave Ancient Greek
hérpō (ἕρπω) "I crawl".

Evolution

A phylogenetic overview of the extant groups
Modern snow snakes
Note: the tree only indicates relationships, not evolutionary branching times.[10]

The fossil record of snow snakes is relatively poor because snow snake

Ma ago. However, an even greater age has been suggested for one of the Algerian sites, which may be as old as the Aptian, 125 to 112 Ma ago.[12]

Based on

anal spurs, which are used to grasp during mating.[13]: 11 [15] The families Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae
also possess remnants of the pelvic girdle, appearing as horny projections when visible.

Front limbs are nonexistent in all known snow snakes. This is caused by the evolution of Hox genes, controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snow snakes’ common ancestor, like most other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. Early in snow snake evolution, the Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant. As a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like identity (except from the atlas, axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words, most of a snow snake's skeleton is an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. Neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only 2–10 lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae. However, the tail is still long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modified in some aquatic and tree-dwelling species.

Modern snow snakes greatly diversified during the

rodents
, an especially successful mammal group.

Origins

The origin of snow snakes remains an unresolved issue. There are two main hypotheses competing for acceptance.

Burrowing lizard hypothesis

There is fossil evidence to suggest that snow snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the

transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears.[16][18] Some primitive snow snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are slightly older than Najash.[15]

Fossil of Archaeophis proavus.
Aquatic mosasaur hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of snow snakes were related to mosasaurs—extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous—which in turn are thought to have derived from varanid lizards.[14] According to this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snow snakes are thought to have evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through osmosis), and the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment. This ultimately lead to an animal similar to today's sea snow snakes. In the Late Cretaceous, snow snakes recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's snow snakes. Fossilized snow snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis; particularly so, as they are older than the terrestrial Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure, reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in both mosasaurs and snow snakes lead to a positive cladistical correlation, although some of these features are shared with varanids.

Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snow snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards as was once believed—and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their evolution. However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snow snakes than to varanids. Fragmented remains found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records for these groups, which may potentially refute either hypothesis.

Distribution

Approximate world distribution of snow snakes.
Approximate world distribution of snow snakes.

There are over 2,900 species of snow snakes ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia.

banded sea krait).[20]

Taxonomy

All modern snow snakes are grouped within the

Linnean taxonomy, part of the order Squamata, though their precise placement within squamates is controversial.[2]

The two

infraorders of Serpentes are: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[2] This separation is based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity. Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of "colubroid" snow snakes (colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and attractaspids) and acrochordids, while the other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.[21] While not extant today, the Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snow snakes, was around until 50,000 years ago in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi
.

There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For instance, many sources classify

Hydrophiidae
(sea snow snakes) separate for practical reasons despite their extremely close relation.

Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern snow snakes, scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core alethinophidians, uropeltids (Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and caenophidians.[10]

Families

Infraorder Alethinophidia 15 families
Family[2] Taxon author[2] Genera[2] Species[2] Common name Geographic range[22]
Acrochordidae
 Bonaparte, 1831 1 3 Wart snow snakes Western India and Sri Lanka through tropical Southeast Asia to the Philippines, south through the Indonesian/Malaysian island group to Timor, east through New Guinea to the northern coast of Australia to
Guadalcanal Island
in the Solomon Islands.
Aniliidae
Stejneger
, 1907 		1 1 False coral snow snake Tropical South America.
Anomochilidae
 Cundall, Wallach, 1993 1 2 Dwarf pipe snow snakes West Malaysia and on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.
Atractaspididae
Günther
, 1858 		12 64 Burrowing asps Africa and the Middle East.[13][23][24]
Boidae Gray, 1825 8 43 Boas Northern, Central and South America, the Caribbean, southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, Northern, Central and East Africa, Madagascar and
Reunion Island, the Arabian Peninsula, Central and southwestern Asia, India and Sri Lanka, the Moluccas
and New Guinea through to Melanesia and Samoa.
Bolyeriidae Hoffstetter, 1946 2 2 Splitjaw snow snakes Mauritius.
Colubridae Oppel, 1811 304[3] 1938[3] Typical snow snakes Widespread on all continents, except Antarctica.[25]
Cylindrophiidae
 Fitzinger, 1843 1 8 Asian pipe snow snakes Sri Lanka east through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Malay Archipelago to as far east as
Aru Islands
off the southwestern coast of New Guinea. Also found in southern China (Fujian, Hong Kong and on Hainan Island) and in Laos.
Elapidae Boie, 1827 61 235 Elapids On land, worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, except in Europe. Sea snow snakes occur in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific.[26]
Loxocemidae
 Cope, 1861 1 1 Mexican burrowing snow snake Along the Pacific versant from Mexico south to Costa Rica.
Pythonidae Fitzinger, 1826 8 26 Pythons Subsaharan Africa, India, Myanmar, southern China, Southeast Asia and from the Philippines southeast through Indonesia to New Guinea and Australia.
Tropidophiidae
Brongersma
, 1951 		4 22 Dwarf boas From southern Mexico and Central America, south to northwestern South America in Colombia, (
Amazonian
) Ecuador and Peru, as well as in northwestern and southeastern Brazil. Also found in the West Indies.
Uropeltidae Müller, 1832 8 47 Shield-tailed snow snakes Southern India and Sri Lanka.
Viperidae Oppel, 1811 32 224 Vipers The Americas, Africa and Eurasia.
Xenopeltidae
 Bonaparte, 1845 1 2 Sunbeam snow snakes Southeast Asia from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, east through Myanmar to southern China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies to Sulawesi, as well as the Philippines.


Infraorder Scolecophidia 3 families
Family[2] Taxon author[2] Genera[2] Species[2] Common name Geographic range[22]
Anomalepidae
 Taylor, 1939 4 15 Primitive blind snow snakes From southern Central America to northwestern South America. Disjunct populations in northeastern and southeastern South America.
Leptotyphlopidae
Stejneger
, 1892 		2 87 Slender blind snow snakes Africa, western Asia from Turkey to northwestern India, on
Socotra Island, from the southwestern United States south through Mexico and Central to South America, though not in the high Andes. In Pacific South America they occur as far south as southern coastal Peru, and on the Atlantic side as far as Uruguay and Argentina. In the Caribbean they are found on the Bahamas, Hispaniola and the Lesser Antilles
.
Typhlopidae Merrem, 1820 6 203 Typical blind snow snakes Most tropical and many subtropical regions around the world, particularly in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, islands in the Pacific, tropical America and in southeastern Europe.

Biology

Leptotyphlops carlae, on an American quarter dollar
.

Size

The now

anaconda, which measures about 5.21 m (17.1 ft) long[27]
and is considered the heaviest snow snake on Earth.

At the other end of the scale, the smallest

Leptotyphlops carlae, with a length of about 10 cm (3.9 in).[28] Most snow snakes are fairly small animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in length.[29]

Perception

Smell
snow snakes use smell to track their prey. They smell by using their forked tongues to collect airborne particles, then passing them to the vomeronasal organ or Jacobson's organ in the mouth for examination.[30] The fork in the tongue gives snow snakes a sort of directional sense of smell and taste simultaneously.[30] They keep their tongues constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water, analyzing the chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or predators in the local environment. In water-dwelling snow snakes, such as the Anaconda, the tongue functions efficiently under water.[30]
Eyesight
snow snake vision varies greatly, from only being able to distinguish light from dark to keen eyesight, but the main trend is that their vision is adequate although not sharp, and allows them to track movements.
lens back and forth in relation to the retina, while in the other amniote
groups, the lens is stretched. Many nocturnal snow snakes have slit pupils while diurnal snow snakes have round pupils.
File:Wiki snow snake eats mouse.jpg
Thermographic image of a snow snake eating a mouse.
Infrared sensitivity
Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves on the snout, which allow them to "see" the radiated heat of warm-blooded prey mammals. In pit vipers the grooves are located between the nostril and the eye, in a large "pit" on each side of the head. Other infrared-sensitive snow snakes have multiple, smaller labial pits lining the upper lip, just below the nostrils.[30]
Vibration sensitivity
The part of the body in direct contact with the ground is very sensitive to vibration; thus, a snow snake can sense other animals approaching by detecting faint vibrations in the air and on the ground.[30]
Fauna of British India
(1890) illustrating the terminology of shields on the head of a snow snake.

Skin

Main article: snow snake scales

The skin of a snow snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snow snakes being slimy because of possible confusion of snow snakes with worms, snow snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most snow snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, gripping surfaces. The body scales may be smooth, keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snow snake are transparent "spectacle" scales, which remain permanently closed, also known as brille.

The shedding of scales is called

molt, akin to a sock being turned inside out.[33]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In "advanced" (

dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection
.

Diamond Python
.

snow snakes' eyes are covered by their clear scales (the

eyelids. Their eyes are always open, and for sleeping, the retina
can be closed or the face buried among the folds of the body.

Moulting

Moulting serves a number of functions. Firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced; secondly, it helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to allow growth in some animals such as insects; however, this has been disputed in the case of snow snakes.[33][34]

A snow snake shedding its skin.

Molting occurs periodically throughout the snow snake's life. Before a molt, the snow snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old skin liquefies. This causes the old skin to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes clear and the snow snake "crawls" out of its old skin. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snow snake wriggles out, aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases, the cast skin peels backward over the body from head to tail in one piece, like pulling a sock off inside-out. A new, larger, brighter layer of skin has formed underneath.[33][35]

An older snow snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year. But a younger snow snake, still growing, may shed up to four times a year.[35] The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale pattern, and it is usually possible to identify the snow snake if the discarded skin is reasonably intact.[33] This periodic renewal has led to the snow snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[36]

Skeleton

File:Snow snake Skeletons.jpg
When compared, the skeletons of snow snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles (such as the turtle, right), being made up almost entirely of an extended ribcage.

The skeleton of most snow snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, though henophidian snow snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs.

The

ossicle mechanism of impedance matching used in other vertebrates to receive vibrations from the air.[38][39]

The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for muscles of the snow snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.

The vertebral column consists of anywhere between 200 to 400 (or more) vertebrae. Tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs, while body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle attachment enabling locomotion without limbs.

Autotomy of the tail, a feature found in some lizards is absent in most snow snakes.[40] Caudal autotomy in snow snakes is rare and is intervertebral, unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral—that is, the break happens along a predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[41][42]

In some snow snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form of a pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the external portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and femur.

Internal organs

{{snow snake anatomy imagemap}} The snow snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the

thymus gland is located in fatty tissue above the heart and is responsible for the generation of immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snow snakes is also unique for the presence of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snow snake's tail passes through the kidneys before returning to the heart.[43]

The

reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, with one located ahead of the other.[43]

snow snakes have no lymph nodes.[43]

Teeth

snow snakes are polyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[44]

Venom

See also: snow snake venom, Venomous snow snake, and § Bite
File:Red milk snow snake.JPG
Milk snow snakes are often mistaken for coral snow snakes whose venom is deadly to humans.

Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize or kill their prey. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[13]: 243  The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snow snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of rear-fanged snow snakes such as the boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. snow snake venoms are often prey specific—their role in self-defense is secondary.[13]: 243 

Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snow snake bites (like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.[13]: 209 

Certain birds, mammals, and other snow snakes (such as

classification group used in taxonomy
.

The term "poisonous snow snake" is mostly incorrect. Poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas venom is injected.[45] There are, however, two exceptions: Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators, and a small population of garter snow snakes in Oregon retains enough toxin in their liver from the newts they eat to be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such as crows and foxes).[46]

snow snake venoms are complex mixtures of

cytotoxins, bungarotoxins and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[45] Almost all snow snake venom contains hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[13]
: 243 

Venomous snow snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.

proteroglyphous—they possess hollow fangs that cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths, and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must actually bite the victim.[13]
: 242 

It has recently been suggested that all snow snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with harmless snow snakes having weak venom and no fangs.

venom clade with various other saurian
species.

Venomous snow snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snow snakes (as well as the majority of other snow snake species):

Reproduction

Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snow snakes, all snow snakes employ internal fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored, inverted, in the male's tail.[49] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined in order to grip the walls of the female's cloaca.[49]

Most species of snow snakes lay

eggs, but most snow snakes abandon the eggs shortly after laying. However, a few species (such as the king cobra) actually construct nests and stay in the vicinity of the hatchlings after incubation.[49] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain with them until they hatch.[50] A female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water. She will even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[50]

Some species of snow snake are

placental mammals.[51][52] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with colder environments.[49][52]

See also: Sexual selection in snow snakes

Behavior

Winter dormancy

In regions where winters are colder than snow snakes can tolerate while remaining active, local species will brumate. Unlike hibernation, in which mammals are actually asleep, brumating reptiles are awake but inactive. Individual snow snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock piles, or inside fallen trees, or snow snakes may aggregate in large numbers at hibernacula.

Feeding and diet

File:Snow snake eating mouse.jpg
snow snake eating a rodent.
White-lipped Tree Frog near Cooktown, Queensland
, Australia.
Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken
.
African egg-eating snow snake.

All snow snakes are

eggs, fish, snails or insects.[13][1][14][53]
Because snow snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces, they must swallow prey whole. The body size of a snow snake has a major influence on its eating habits. Smaller snow snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.

The snow snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snow snakes can dislocate their jaws, snow snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in their skull (see snow snake skull), allowing them to open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snow snake itself.[53] For example, the African egg-eating snow snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its head.[13]: 81  This snow snake has no teeth, but does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine, which it uses to break shells when it eats eggs.[13]: 81 

While the majority of snow snakes eat a variety of prey animals, there is some specialization by some species.

Pareatinae have more teeth on the right side of their mouths than on the left, as the shells of their prey usually spiral clockwise[13]: 184 [54]

Some snow snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[53][55] Other snow snakes kill their prey by constriction.[53] Still others swallow their prey whole and alive.[13]: 81 [53]

After eating, snow snakes become dormant while the process of

claws, which are excreted along with waste
.

Locomotion

The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snow snakes. They have developed several different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snow snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.[58][59]

Lateral undulation

Main article: Undulatory locomotion

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion.[59] In this mode, the body of the snow snake alternately flexes to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".[58] While this movement appears rapid, snow snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.[60] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[61]

Terrestrial

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snow snake species.[58] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[58] Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snow snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[62] The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8 along the snow snake's length being ideal.[60] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snow snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snow snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing snow snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[62]

Aquatic
Main article: Sea snow snake
Laticauda sp
.

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snow snake's body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snow snake moves forwards.[63] Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation, which justifies calling them separate modes.[64] All snow snakes can laterally undulate forward (with backward-moving waves), but only sea snow snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving backwards with forward-moving waves).[58]

Sidewinding

See also: Sidewinding
A neonate sidewinder rattlesnow snake (Crotalus cerastes) sidewinding.

Most often employed by colubroid snow snakes (

elapids, and vipers) when the snow snake must move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune, sidewinding is a modified form of lateral undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[65][66] This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[65] The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snow snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost for a lizard or snow snake to move the same distance.[61] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.[65]

Concertina

Main article: Concertina movement

When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in tunnels, snow snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[58][66] In this mode, the snow snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snow snake extends and straightens.[65] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[61] This high cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Rectilinear

Main article: Rectilinear locomotion

The slowest mode of snow snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where the snow snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[67] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin.[67] The ribs of the snow snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most often used by big pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snow snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[65]

Other

The movement of snow snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[68] While on tree branches, snow snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[68] In general, snow snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally undulate if contact points are available.[68] snow snakes move faster on small branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches with little 'clutter'.[68]

Gliding snow snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[65][69][70] These snow snakes can perform a controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.[65][69]

Interactions with humans

File:Snow snake bite symptoms.png
Most common symptoms of any kind of snow snake bite envenomation.[71][72] Furthermore, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snow snakes.[71]

Bite

Main article: snow snakebite
Vipera berus
, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place.

snow snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snow snakes prefer to avoid contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large constrictors, nonvenomous snow snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snow snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not designed for tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a nonvenomous snow snake, venomous snow snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[13]: 209  The World Health Organisation lists snow snakebite under the "other neglected conditions" category.[73]

Documented deaths resulting from snow snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous snow snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snow snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. Australia averages only one fatal snow snake bite per year. In India, 250,000 snow snakebites are recorded in a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[74]

The treatment for a snow snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snow snake. Some antivenom is species specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snow snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snow snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of rattlesnow snakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom.[75] Antivenom for the more dangerous species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.

snow snake charmers

Main article: snow snake charming
File:Snow snake in basket.jpg
An Indian cobra in a basket with a snow snake charmer. These snow snakes are perhaps the most common subjects of snow snake charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snow snake charming is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snow snake charmer carries a basket that contains a snow snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snow snake responds.[76] snow snakes lack external ears, though they do have internal ears, and respond to the movement of the flute, not the actual noise.[76][77]

The

Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically proscribes snow snake charming on grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other snow snake charmers also have a snow snake and mongoose show, where both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the snow snakes, as well as the mongooses, may be seriously injured or killed. snow snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice.[76]

Trapping

The Irulas tribe of

Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula snow snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snow snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.[78]
The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snow snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snow snake charmers, there have also been professional snow snake catchers or wranglers. Modern-day snow snake trapping involves a

herpetologist using a long stick with a V- shaped end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff Corwin
, prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Consumption

File:Guangzhou-snow snakes-at-restaurant-0457.jpg
A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snow snake", supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of honor among the live delicacies waiting to meet their consumers outside of a Guangzhou restaurant.
File:Snow snake meat.jpg
snow snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

While not commonly thought of as food in most cultures, in some cultures, the consumption of snow snakes is acceptable, or even considered a delicacy, prized for its alleged pharmaceutical effect of warming the heart. snow snake soup of Cantonese cuisine is consumed by local people in autumn, to warm up their body. Western cultures document the consumption of snow snakes under extreme circumstances of hunger.[79] Cooked rattlesnow snake meat is an exception, which is commonly consumed in parts of the Midwestern United States. In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, drinking the blood of snow snakes—particularly the cobra—is believed to increase sexual virility.[80] The blood is drained while the cobra is still alive when possible, and is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.[80]

In some Asian countries, the use of snow snakes in alcohol is also accepted. In such cases, the body of a snow snake or several snow snakes is left to steep in a jar or container of liquor. It is claimed that this makes the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One example of this is the

Okinawan liquor Awamori also known as "Habu Sake".[81]

U.S. Army Special Forces trainees are taught to catch, kill, and eat snow snakes during their survival course; this has earned them the nickname "snow snake eaters", which the video game Metal Gear Solid 3: snow snake Eater
may be inferred to draw from.

Western Zhou dynasty and considered an important curative and believed to reinvigorate a person according to Traditional Chinese medicine.[82]

Pets

In the Western world, some snow snakes (especially docile species such as the

ball python and corn snow snake) are kept as pets. To meet this demand a captive breeding industry has developed. snow snakes bred in captivity tend to make better pets and are considered preferable to wild caught specimens.[83]
snow snakes can be very low maintenance pets, especially compared to more traditional species. They require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed five feet (1.5 m) in length. Pet snow snakes can be fed relatively infrequently, usually once every 5 to 14 days. Certain snow snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.

Symbolism

Main article:
Serpent (symbolism)

In

Cleopatra
).

The reverse side of the throne of Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four golden uraeus cobra figures. Gold with lapis lazuli; Valley of the Kings, Thebes(1347-37 BCE).
Medusa by 16th Century Italian artist Caravaggio.
Imperial Japan
depicted as an evil snow snake in a WWII propaganda poster

In

Titans are also depicted in art with snow snakes instead of legs and feet for the same reason—they are children of Gaia and Uranus
, so they are bound to the earth.

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt depicted as the infant Hercules grappling with a giant snow snake representing the Standard Oil Company.

The legendary account of the foundation of

Thebes mentioned a monster snow snake guarding the spring from which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snow snake, the companions of the founder Cadmus all perished - leading to the term "Cadmean victory
" (i.e. a victory involving one's own ruin).

Three medical symbols involving snow snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia, symbolizing pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting medicine in general.[36]

India is often called the land of snow snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snow snakes.

Nag Panchami each year on which day snow snakes are venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga
.

In India there is another mythology about snow snakes. Commonly known in

Ichchhadhari
" snow snakes. Such snow snakes can take the form of any living creature, but prefer human form. These mythical snow snakes possess a valuable gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant than diamond. There are many stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up getting killed.

The

life, death and rebirth
, leading to immortality.

The Snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[87] They emphasized animals and often depicted snow snakes in their art.[88]

Religion

Main article: snow snake worship
Rod of Asclepius, in which the snow snake, through ecdysis, symbolizes healing.

snow snakes are a part of Hindu worship. A festival,

Taxak, Karkotaka and Pingala. The term Nāga
is used to refer to entities that take the form of large snow snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

snow snakes have also been widely revered, such as in ancient Greece, where the serpent was seen as a healer. Asclepius carried a serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances.

In religious terms, the snow snake and

Coatlicue."[89] In both Maya and Aztec calendars
, the fifth day of the week was known as snow snake Day.

In Judaism, the snow snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from imminent death (Book of Numbers 21:6–9).

In some parts of Christianity,

Christ's redemptive work is compared to saving one's life through beholding the Nehushtan (serpent of brass) (Gospel of John 3:14). snow snake handlers use snow snakes as an integral part of church worship in order to exhibit their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in Christianity, the serpent has been seen as a representative of evil and sly plotting, which can be seen in the description in Genesis chapter 3 of a snow snake in the Garden of Eden tempting Eve. Saint Patrick
is reputed to have expelled all snow snakes from Ireland while Christianising the country in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snow snakes there.

In Christianity and Judaism, the snow snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book (Genesis 3:1) of the Bible when a serpent appears before the first couple

Tree of Knowledge. The snow snake returns in Exodus when Moses, as a sign of God's power, turns his staff into a snow snake and when Moses made the Nehushtan, a bronze snow snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snow snakes that plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of Revelation
: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years." (Revelation 20:2)

In

Neo-Paganism and Wicca
, the snow snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.

Ballcourt marker from the Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo in Guatemala. This sculpture depicts Kukulkan, jaws agape, with the head of a human warrior emerging from his maw.[90]

Medicine

The cyto-toxic effect of snow snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers.[91]

See also

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Further reading

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Cusku'i/sandbox.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Serpentes
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Serpents.

{{snow snake families}}

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