User:The Thin Man Who Never Leaves/Buddhism Article,4 Sept. 2008

Monastic life

Meditation

Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of

in Theravāda

In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna, a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

History

Indian Buddhism

The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:^[53]

1. Early Buddhist Schools (also called Pre-sectarian Buddhism); Hajime Nakamura^[54]
   subdivides this into two subperiods:
   1. original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism^[citation needed])
   2. early Buddhism
2. Period of the Early Buddhist schools (also called Sectarian Buddhism, Nikaya Buddhism)
3. Early
   Mahayana Buddhism
4. Later Mahayana Buddhism
5. Vajrayana Buddhism
   (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.^{[citation needed]}

Pre-sectarian Buddhism

The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:[56]

• the
  three characteristics
• the
  five aggregates
• dependent arising
• karma and rebirth
• the
  four noble truths
• the
  eightfold path
• nirvana

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.^[57]

Councils

According to the scriptures, soon after the

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.[60] The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that 'the Sangha has been made unified'. This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an

Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the

Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers are uncertain, ranging from 230 to more than 1.600 million worldwide. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call Chinese folk or traditional religion, which is an amalgam of various traditions, including Buddhism. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because:

• of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
• of
  synchretism in the Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto and traditional religions or Shamanism, animism; having beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas;^{[66][67][68][69][70][71][72]}
• it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies;[73]
• of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably China, Vietnam and North Korea^[74][75][76].

According to one analysis,

• Burma. Also the Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar
  ) practices Theravada.
• East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
• Russian Federation
  .
• Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the
  Friends of the Western Buddhist Order
  , though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.^[78]

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

Schools and Traditions

The most frequently used classification of Buddhism among scholars^{[79][page needed]} has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language.^[80] Some scholars^[81] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. A common addition to this three is Vajrayana, but it can also be considered part of Mahayana. Hinayana (literary "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be consider derogatory.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars^[82] divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in

Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor

After the end of the Kuṣāṇas, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the Nālandā University in north-eastern India.

In addition to the

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

• Nichiren, peculiar to Japan
• Pure Land
• Shingon
  , a form of Vajrayana
• Tendai
• Chan/Zen

In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.^[87]

Pure Land Buddhism

There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.^[88] Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.^[89] In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen); Chan survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.^[90] In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,^[91] but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.^[92]

There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.^[93] The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.^[94]

Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism

There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject,

Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.[96] In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it

Buddhist texts

Scholars categorize Buddhist scriptures by the languages in which they are written.^[

. This method doesn't always correspond to the traditions and schools.

Pāli Tipitaka

Main article:

Pāli Canon

Pāli Canon
1. Vinaya Piṭaka
1. Suttavibhaṅga 2. Khandhaka 3. Parivāra
2. Sutta Piṭaka
1. Dīgha Nikāya 2. Majjhima Nikāya 3. Saṃyutta Nikāya 4. Aṅguttara Nikāya 5. Khuddaka Nikāya
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka
1. Dhammasaṅgaṇī 2. Vibhaṅga 3. Dhātukathā 4. Puggalapaññatti 5. Kathāvatthu 6. Yamaka 7. Paṭṭhāna
v t e

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canons of

Pāli

as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

• The
  Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns
  , as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
• The
  the Buddha
  .
• The
  Abhidhamma Pitaka
  ) contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named

Upāli

, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The

nāgas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Approximately six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan

translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic, valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the

Mahayana Sutras

does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the

Babasaheb Ambedkar

) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight

Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His Dhamma"

. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.

See also

• Buddhism in the West
• Buddhist Ceremonies
• Buddhist flag
• Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana
• Buddhist terms and concepts
• List of Buddhist topics
• List of Buddhists
• Buddhism in the west
• Shinbutsu shūgō

Comparative studies

Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects, including various religion, ethics, philosophy and science. For example,

Middle way

not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies

• Buddhism and Jainism
• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Christianity
• God in Buddhism
  (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
• Buddhism and Eastern teaching
  (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
• Buddhism and psychology
• Buddhism and science
• Buddhist Ethics
  (Buddhism and ethics)
• Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
• Buddhism and Thelema^[100]

Buddhist symbols

Main article: Buddhist symbolism

The 'eight auspicious symbols' (Sanskrit: ashtamangala) of Mahayana and Vajrayana are:

• the
  White Shell
• the Dharma wheel
• the Endless Knot
• the Golden Fish
• the
  Lotus flower
• the Treasure Vase
• the
  Parasol (Umbrella)
• the Victory Banner

Notes

1. ^ Chambers Dictionary, 2006; Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2003; New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, px998; Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification; Robinson & Johnson, The Buddhist Religion; [1]
2. ^ US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004,
3. ^ Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.
4. ^ [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#People CIA - The World Factbook
5. ^ Major Religions Ranked by Size
6. ISBN 1-59257-277-4. http://vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html
   .
7. ^ UNESCO webpage entitled "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."
8. ^ For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a rājan—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (Theravada Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha, ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources
9. ^ http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights "On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."
10. ^ http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening
11. ^ see: The Bodhi Tree
12. ^ Bodhi leaf
13. ^ Skilton, Concise, p. 25
14. ^ "the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara
15. ^ spokensanskrit dictionary, using कर्मन् as input
16. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Budhism, page 40
17. ^ Lopez, Story of Buddhism, page 239/Buddhism, page 248
18. ^ T.P. Kasulis of Ohio State University, "Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness." Journal of Buddhist Ethics: [2].
19. ^ Thera, Piyadassi (1999). "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta". The Book of Protection. Buddhist Publication Society. In what is said in Theravada to be the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities, he talks about the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths.
20. samsara
    ), so it is believed by many that suffering is too narrow a translation and that it is best to leave dukkha untranslated.
21. ^ Warder (1970), p. 34.
22. ^ See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html The Four Noble Truths
23. ^ Gethin, Foundations, page 60
24. ^ (2004), Volume One, page 296
25. ^ Harvey, Introduction, p. 47
26. ISBN 0140514805
    .,pages 393f
27. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 92
28. ^ Eliot, Japanese Budhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60
29. ^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f
30. ^ with सम्यक् as input
31. ^ Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143
32. MN 72 (Thanissaro, 1997). For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see Thanissaro (2004)
    .
33. ^ The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.
34. ^ Philosophy East and West, volume Twenty-Six, page 138
35. ^ Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989, page 2
36. ^ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 395
37. ^ Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324.
38. ^ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 395
39. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 56
40. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 57
41. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 58
42. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 59
43. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 60
44. ^ spokensanskrit dictionary with निर्वन as input
45. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
46. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
47. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
48. ^ An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67
49. ^ Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2007, page 611
50. ^ Harvey, page 170
51. ^ Bhikku, Thanissaro (2001). "Refuge". An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha. Access to Insight.
52. ^ Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha, tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f
53. ^ A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7
54. ^ Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents
55. ^ Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press
56. ^ Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents
57. ^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11
58. ^ spokensanskrit.de dictionary with पर and निर्वाण as input
59. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
60. ^ Journal of the Pāli Text Society, volume XVI, p. 105)
61. ^ Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272
62. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 74
63. ^ Fa-Hien. "Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms". Translated by James Legge. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2008-08-18."In the community here, moreover, we got the Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-(sastra), containing about six or seven thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of 2500 gathas; one chapter of the Parinir-vana-vaipulya Sutra, of about 5000 gathas; and the Mahasan-ghikah Abhidharma"
64. ^ Dutt, Nalinaksha. "Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions". The Indian Historical Quarterly. Retrieved 2008-08-18."the Mahasanghikas, so far as the traditions go, did not recognise the seven texts of the Theravadins as Buddhabhasita, (6) but had an Abhidharma Pitaka of their own according to the testimony of Yuan Chuang,(7) who further supplies us with the information that he himself studied certain Abhidharma treatises of the Mahasanghika"
65. ^ Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan. "this is the spot where the assembly of the Great Congregation (Mahdsanghikas) was held….So they made another collection of the Sutra-pitaka, and the Vinaya-pitaka, and the Abhidharma-pitaka, and of the Miscellaneous-pitaka, and the Dharall-pitaka, five pitakas in all. As in this assembly there were both ordinary persons and holy men present; it is called the convocation of the Mahasafghikas."
66. ^ Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion
67. ^ Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions
68. ^ Religions and Beliefs in China
69. ^ SACU Religion in China
70. ^ Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions
71. ^ AskAsia - Buddhism in China
72. ^ BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD
73. ^ U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
74. openDemocracy.net - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion
75. ^ Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files
76. ^ The Range of Religious Freedom
77. ^ Garfinkel, Perry (December 2005). "Buddha Rising". National Geographic: 88–109.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
78. ^ [3], retrieved on 2008-01-15
79. Tantric Buddhism
    .
80. ^ "Tibetan Buddhism". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-07.
81. ^ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff
82. ^ (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism." Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West."
83. ^ http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm
84. ^ Gethin, Foundations, page 1
85. ^ Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge., pages 20f
86. ISBN 0710085400
    .
87. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 430, 435
88. ^ World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10
89. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 152
90. ^ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950, Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396
91. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 283
92. ^ World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723
93. ^ World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803
94. ^ Harvey, Introduction, page 159; Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume Two), page 882
95. ISBN 0231126190
    .
96. ^ Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, page 89
97. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4
98. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)
99. ^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16
100. ^ Thelema & Buddhism in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32

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• Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 1-84483-125-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
  )
• Donath, Dorothy C. (1971). Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day. Julian Press.
  ISBN 0-07-017533-0
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• ISBN 0-86171-321-4. Also available on this websites: saigon.com urbandharma.org vipassana.com
• Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0195137989
  .
• Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha. Duncan Baird Publishers.
  ISBN 1-903296-91-9
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• Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Shambhala.
  ISBN 0-87773-520-4
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• Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books
• Nattier, Jan (2003). A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha). University of Hawai'i Press.
  ISBN 0-8248-2607-8
  .
• Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. (1982). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Wadsworth Publishing.
  ISBN 0-534-01027-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
  )
• Sinha, H.P. (1993). Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ.
  ISBN 81-208-2144-0
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• Smith, Huston (2003). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. HarperSanFrancisco.
  ISBN 978-0060730673. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help
  )
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha (3rd ed., rev.). {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help
  )
• ISBN 0-7679-0369-2
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• ISBN 0-271-00601-3. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
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• ISBN 0-8021-3031-3
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• ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
  .
• Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page.
  The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000). {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
  )
• ISBN 0-86171-133-5
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• Indian Books Centre. Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi.
• Ranjini. Jewels of the Doctrine. Sri Satguru Publications. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

website

• Berzin, Alexander (November 2001). "Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan". Berzin Archives.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
• Wei, Wei Wu (1960). "Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra". Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London. Sentient Publications. {{cite web}}: External link in |author= and |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Dhammananda, K. Sri (2002). "What Buddhists Believe" (PDF). Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)

External links

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