1938 New England hurricane
Mid-Atlantic coast | |
Meteorological history | |
---|---|
Formed | September 9, 1938 |
Extratropical | September 22, 1938 |
Dissipated | September 23, 1938 |
Category 5 major hurricane | |
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS) | |
Highest winds | 160 mph (260 km/h) |
Lowest pressure | <940 mbar (hPa); <27.76 inHg |
Overall effects | |
Fatalities | 682 to 800 direct |
Damage | $306 million (1938 USD) |
Areas affected | Southeastern United States, Northeastern United States (particularly Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts), southwestern Quebec |
IBTrACS | |
Part of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season |
The 1938 New England Hurricane (also referred to as the Great New England Hurricane and the Long Island Express Hurricane)
At the time, roughly half of the 1938 New England hurricane's existence went unnoticed. The
Meteorological history
The
The hurricane continued to slowly strengthen and track westward at around 20 mph (32 km/h) about the southern periphery of a
As the hurricane accelerated northward, it gradually weakened.[16][18][20] On the morning of September 21, it passed roughly 75 mi (121 km) east of Cape Hatteras. At 12:00 UTC (8 a.m. EST) that day, the storm was estimated to have a barometric pressure of 940 mbar (940 hPa; 28 inHg); this is the hurricane's lowest documented pressure. At 19:45 UTC (3:45 p.m. EST), the hurricane made landfall on Long Island over Bellport, New York with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (190 km/h) and a pressure of 941 mbar (941 hPa; 27.8 inHg), making it the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the New York City area.[21] It was moving rapidly northward at 47 mph (76 km/h), enhancing the intensity of the winds east of the center; in addition, its forward motion displaced its center of circulation 17 mi (27 km) away from the point of minimum barometric pressure. Weather Bureau forecaster Charles Pierce argued that the hurricane became extratropical off of the Outer Banks, though Charles J. Neumann, Frances P. Ho, and the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project suggested that it was tropical but in the process of extratropical transition at landfall. Afterwards, it quickly tracked across Long Island and Long Island Sound before making a second and final landfall near New Haven, Connecticut as a slightly weaker hurricane with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), making it one of only three recorded tropical cyclones to hit Connecticut as major hurricanes since 1900.[note 2][15][23] The storm steadily weakened, becoming fully extratropical over Vermont by 00:00 UTC on September 22 (September 21, 8 p.m. EST). Following this transition, the remnants continued to weaken before they dissipated over southeastern Ontario on September 23.[16]
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The strengthening of the subtropical ridge over Bermuda steers the hurricane west, while an extratropical low forms over the Great Lakes on September 18
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The extratropical low pulls in cold air from the north, allowing it to strengthen and develop a cold front over the Eastern United States on September 19
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The hurricane begins to be pulled northward by the quasi-stationary cold front on September 20
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Extratropical transition gradually begins as the hurricane interacts with the frontal boundary on September 21
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Following landfall, the storm merges with the trough of low-pressure, isolating it from tropical air and completing extratropical transition on September 22
Forecasting the storm
In 1938, United States forecasting lagged behind forecasting in Europe, where new techniques were being used to analyze air masses, taking into account the influence of fronts. A confidential report was released by the
At 9:00 am EDT on September 21, the Washington office issued northeast storm warnings north of Atlantic City and south of
That day, 28 year-old rookie Charles Pierce was standing in for two veteran meteorologists. He concluded that the storm would be squeezed between a high-pressure area located to the west and a high-pressure area to the east, and that it would be forced to ride up a trough of low pressure into New England. A noon meeting was called and Pierce presented his conclusion, but he was overruled by "celebrated" chief forecaster Charles Mitchell and his senior staff. In Boston, meteorologist E.B. Rideout told his WEEI radio listeners – to the skepticism of his peers – that the hurricane would hit New England.[25] At 2:00 pm, hurricane-force gusts were occurring on Long Island's South Shore and near hurricane-force gusts on the coast of Connecticut. The Washington office issued an advisory saying that the storm was 75 mi (120 km) east-southeast of Atlantic City and would pass over Long Island and Connecticut. Re-analysis of the storm suggests that the hurricane was farther north and just 50 mi (80 km) from Fire Island, and that it was stronger and larger than the advisory stated.[24]
Impact
The majority of the storm damage was from storm surge and wind. Damage was estimated at $308 million, the equivalent of $5.1 billion adjusted for inflation in 2016 dollars, making it among the most costly hurricanes to strike the U.S. mainland.[26] It is estimated that, if an identical hurricane had struck in 2005, it would have caused $39.2 billion in damage due to changes in population and infrastructure.[27]
Approximately 600 people died in the storm in New England, most in Rhode Island, and up to 100 people elsewhere in the path of the storm.[28] An additional 708 people were reported injured.[29]
In total, 4,500 cottages, farms, and other homes were reported destroyed and 25,000 homes were damaged. Other damages included 26,000 automobiles destroyed and 20,000 electrical poles toppled. The hurricane also devastated the forests of the Northeast, knocking down an estimated two billion trees in New York and New England.[29] Freshwater flooding was minimal, however, as the quick passage of the storm decreased local rainfall totals, with only a few small areas receiving over 10 inches (250 mm).
Over 35% of New England's total forest area was affected. In all, over 2.7 billion board feet of trees fell because of the storm, although 1.6 billion board feet of the trees were salvaged.[30] The Northeastern Timber Salvage Administration (NETSA) was established to deal with the extreme fire hazard that the fallen timber had created.[31] In many locations, roads from the fallen tree removal were visible decades later, and some became trails still used today.[citation needed] The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad from New Haven to Providence was particularly hard hit, as countless bridges along the Shore Line were destroyed or flooded, severing rail connections to badly affected towns such as Westerly, Rhode Island.
Due to the lack of technology in 1938, Long Island residents were not warned of the hurricane's arrival,[32] leaving no time to prepare or evacuate.[33] Long Island was struck first, before New England and Quebec, earning the storm the nickname the "Long Island Express."[33] The winds reached up to 150 mph (240 km/h), with waves surging to around 25–35 feet (7.6–10.7 m) high.[34]
New Jersey
The western side of the hurricane caused sustained tropical storm-force winds, high waves, and storm surge along the
New York City and western Long Island
The metropolitan area escaped the worst of the wind and storm surge because it was hit by the storm's weaker western side. Winds were recorded at 60 mph (97 km/h) at
In New York City and Long Island, schools were dismissed early.[24][41] Extensive street flooding occurred because debris blocked drains.[24] The East River flowed three blocks and flooded a Consolidated Edison (Con Ed) plant at 133rd Street, causing power to fail in Manhattan north of 59th Street and in the Bronx for several minutes to a few hours. Railroad and ferry services were suspended for a time. The Staten Island Ferry boat Knickerbocker got stuck in the terminal with 200 passengers aboard.[24][40] Bridges and tunnels into Manhattan were closed until the following afternoon. 95% of Nassau County lost power, where floods brought traffic to a halt.[40]
During the hurricane, starting before it hit and continuing after, a citywide trucker strike occurred across both NYC and New Jersey, this led to some complications to the relief effort. However, the unions made critical exceptions for relief supplies. Moving food supplies to relief depots, ballots for the New York primary before the hurricane hit while people were evacuating, and manning 1,000 relief sanitation trucks deployed by Mayor La Guardia with supplies after the hurricane had hit.[42][43][44]
In
Eastern Long Island
Eastern Long Island experienced the worst of the storm. The Dune Road area of Westhampton Beach was obliterated, resulting in 29 deaths. There were 21 other deaths through the rest of the east end of Long Island. The storm surge temporarily turned Montauk into an island as it flooded across the South Fork at Napeague and obliterated the tracks of the Long Island Rail Road.
Long Island was hit hard being exposed to the storm due to its shorelines. The estimated storm tide was 15 ft (4.6 m) in this region. A mean low water storm tide of 8 ft (2.4 m) was recorded at Port Jefferson.[39] About 50 people perished in the storm's wake.[32] All the shore lines were very vulnerable to the high winds and flooding, and anyone near the shores was directly in harm's way.
Ten new inlets were created on eastern Long Island.
Wading River suffered substantial damage. The storm blew down the movie theater on Front Street in Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island. The fishing industry was destroyed, as was half of the apple crop.[39]
Rhode Island
Block Island was comparatively unaffected by waves,[51] with two fishermen killed, one by drowning, but it was greatly affected by wind, with most barns and farm outbuildings destroyed.[52] The storm surge hit Westerly, Rhode Island at 3:50 pm, resulting in 100 deaths.[53] The tide was higher than usual because of the autumnal equinox and full moon, and the hurricane produced storm tides of 14 to 18 feet (5 m) along most of the Connecticut coast, with 18 to 25-foot (8 m) tides from New London, Connecticut east to Cape Cod—including the entire coastline of Rhode Island.
The storm surge was especially violent along the Rhode Island shore, sweeping hundreds of summer cottages out to sea. As the surge drove northward through Narragansett Bay, it was restricted by the Bay's funnel shape and rose to 15.8 ft (4.8 m) above normal spring tides, resulting in more than 13 feet (4.0 m) of water in some areas of downtown Providence. Several motorists were drowned in their automobiles.[54] In Jamestown, seven children were killed when their school bus was blown into Mackerel Cove.[55] Mobs looted stores in downtown Providence, often before the flood waters had fully subsided and due in part to the economic difficulties of the Great Depression.
Many homes and structures were destroyed along the coast, as well as many structures inland along the hurricane's path, and entire beach communities were obliterated on the coast. Napatree Point was completely swept away, a small cape that housed nearly 40 families between the Atlantic Ocean and Little Narragansett Bay just off of Watch Hill. Napatree is now a wildlife refuge with no human inhabitants. Concrete staircases and boardwalk bases destroyed by the hurricane can still be found when sand levels are low on some beaches. The boardwalk along Easton's Beach in Newport was completely destroyed by the storm.[55]
A few miles from Conanicut Island, Whale Rock Light was swept off its base and into the waves, killing lighthouse keeper Walter Eberle. His body was never found. The Prudence Island Light suffered a direct blow from the storm surge, which measured 17 feet 5 inches (5.31 m) at Sandy Point. The masonry tower was slightly damaged, but the adjoining light keeper's home was utterly destroyed and washed out to sea. The light keeper's wife and son were both killed, as well as the former light keeper and a couple who left their summer cottages near the lighthouse and sought shelter in what they thought was the sturdier light keeper's home. Light keeper George T. Gustavus was thrown free from the wreckage of the house and was saved by an island resident who held a branch into the water from the cliffs farther down the coast. Gustavus and Milton Chase, the owner of the island's power plant, reactivated the light during the storm by running a cable from the plant to the light and installing a light bulb, marking the first time that it was illuminated with electricity.[56]
The original parchment of the 1764 Charter of
Connecticut
Eastern Connecticut was on the eastern side of the hurricane. Long Island acted as a buffer against large ocean surges, but the waters of Long Island Sound rose to great heights. Small shoreline towns to the east of New Haven experienced much destruction from the water and winds, and the 1938 hurricane holds the record for the worst natural disaster in Connecticut's 350-year history. The mean low-water storm tide was 14.1 ft (4.3 m) at Stamford, 12.8 ft (3.9 m) at Bridgeport, and 10.58 ft (3.22 m) at New London, which remains a record high.[39]
In the shoreline towns of
Ultimately the storm became the deadliest and costliest storm in Connecticut history.[62]
Massachusetts
The eye of the storm followed the Connecticut River north into Massachusetts, where the winds and flooding killed 99 people. In Springfield, the river rose six to 10 feet (3 m) above flood stage, causing significant damage. Up to 6 in (150 mm) of rain fell across western Massachusetts, which combined with over 4 in (100 mm) that had fallen a few days earlier to produce widespread flooding. Flash flooding on the Chicopee River washed away the Chicopee Falls Bridge, while the Connecticut River flooded most of the Willimansett section. Residents of Ware were stranded for days and relied on air-dropped food and medicine. After the flood receded, the town's Main Street was a chasm in which sewer pipes could be seen.
To the east, the surge left Falmouth and New Bedford under eight feet of water. Two-thirds of the boats sank in New Bedford harbor. Several homes were washed away on Atlantic Boulevard in Fall River, and their foundations can still be found on the beach today. The Blue Hill Observatory registered sustained winds of 121 mph (195 km/h) and a peak gust of 186 mph (299 km/h), which is the strongest hurricane-related surface wind gust ever recorded in the United States.[63] A 50 ft (15 m) wave, the tallest of the storm, was recorded at Gloucester.[39]
The storm filled in a former waterway between
Vermont
The storm entered Vermont as a Category 1 hurricane at approximately 6:00 pm EDT, reaching northern Vermont, Burlington, and Lake Champlain around 8:00 pm.[64][47] Hurricane-force winds caused extensive damage to trees, buildings, and power lines. Over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of public roads were blocked, and it took months for crews to reopen some of the roads. In Montpelier, 120 miles (190 km) from the nearest coast, salt spray was seen on windows.[65] A train was derailed in Castleton.[47] The storm killed five people in Vermont. Sugar maple groves were damaged.[66] It is the only system on record to have entered the state as a tropical cyclone.
New Hampshire
Even though the storm center tracked further west, through Vermont,
Maine
In Maine, buildings and trees were damaged and power outages occurred. Storm surge was minimal, and winds remained below hurricane strength. The storm did not claim any lives in Maine.[47][67]
Maryland and Delaware
The western periphery of the hurricane brought heavy rain and gusty winds to Delaware and southeastern Maryland.[68] Damage, if any, is believed to have been minimal.
Quebec
As the hurricane was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, it tracked into southern Quebec. By the time the system initially crossed into Canada, it continued to produce heavy rain and very strong winds, but interaction with land had caused the system to weaken significantly. Still, many trees were blown down.[69] Otherwise, damage in this region was minimal.[70]
See also
- Hurricane Irene – A major hurricane that passed through New England in 2011, following its landfall
- Hurricane Sandy – A powerful storm that caused significant damage in the Northeastern United States in 2012, mostly as an extratropical cyclone
- List of Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Delaware hurricanes
- List of New England hurricanes
- List of wettest tropical cyclones in Massachusetts
Explanatory notes
- Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale was formulated in 1969.[12]
- ^ A major hurricane is a storm that ranks as Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.[22] According to the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, those three cyclones were the 1938 New England hurricane, the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane, and Hurricane Carol in 1954.[23]
Citations
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- ^ "The Great Hurricane of 1938 - The Long Island Express". Archived from the original on September 25, 2014. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
- ^ a b Scotti, R. A. "Sudden Sea — The Great Hurricane of 1938". Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 2003. Retrieved November 30, 2007.
- ^ "New England Numbers Hurricane of '38". NewEngland.com. Yankee Magazine. August 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
- ^ Ian Webster. "$306,000,000 in 1938 is worth $6,734,734,468.09 today". CPI Inflation Calculator. Official Data Foundation. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
- ^ An Actuary Reads the Newspaper (PDF). New York Annual Meeting October 18–21, 1998. Record of the Society of Actuaries. Vol. 24, no. 3. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
- ^ Karen M. Clark (November 12, 2017). "A Hurricane Andrew Message for Insurers". Actuarial Review. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
- ^ "Hurricane 1938 Aftermath". The PBS Network. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
- ISBN 0-8019-5088-0.
- ^ Lefebvre, Paul (October 19, 2016). "How a hurricane changed New England's forests" (PDF). The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp. B1.
review of book: 'Thirty-Eight, The Hurricane that Transformed New England', by Stephen Long 2016
- ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale". Miami Regional Library. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- S2CID 1785238. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ . Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f Landsea, Christopher W.; Hagen, Andrew; Bredemeyer, William; Carrasco, Cristina; Glenn, David A.; Santiago, Adrian; Strahan-Sakoskie, Donna; Dickinson, Michael (August 12, 2013). "On-line Supplement for A Reanalysis of the 1931 to 1943 Atlantic Hurricane Database" (PDF). Journal of Climate. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ a b c d "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved April 18, 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Schott, Timothy; Landsea, Chris; Hafele, Gene; Lorens, Jeffrey; Taylor, Arthur; Thurm, Harvey; Ward, Bill; Willis, Mark; Zaleski, Walt (February 1, 2012). "The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale" (PDF). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. p. 3. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
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- ^ National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office New York, New York (2015). "Timeline of Events from "The Long Island Express: Tracking the Hurricane of 1938" by Roger K. Brickner". The Great New England Hurricane of 1938. Upton, New York: National Weather Service. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Boston, Massachusetts. "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938". NWS Boston - The Great Hurricane of 1938. Boston, Massachusetts: National Weather Service. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ Van Lenten, Christine, ed. (November 2014). "4.1" (PDF). NYC's Risk Landscape: A Guide to Hazard Mitigation (Report). New York, New York: City of New York. p. 49. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
September 1938: The most powerful hurricane on record to ever impact the region makes landfall near Fire Island.
- ^ Goldenburg, Stan (June 1, 2016). "A3) What is a super-typhoon? What is a major hurricane? What is an intense hurricane?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.9. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ a b Landsea, Chris (June 1, 2016). "E23) What is the complete list of continental U.S. landfalling hurricanes?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.9. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Service, US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather. "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938 - History". Retrieved February 9, 2017.
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- ^ "New England "Blowdown" Timber and Forest Fire Hazard Caused by the Sept. 1938 Hurricane". Archived from the original on September 22, 2013. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
- ^ "The Great Hurricane of 1938 - Peeling Back the Bark". June 8, 2010.
- ^ a b Rather, John (August 28, 2005). "Dreading a Replay of 1938 Hurricane". New York Times. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
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- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 6, 2023.
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- ^ "MAYOR PROCLAIMS TRUCK EMERGENCY; USES CITY FLEET; Sanitation Vehicles Manned by Strikers After Employers Reject City Hall Proposal". The New York Times. September 28, 1938. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
- ^ "22 Sep 1938, Page 9 - The Brooklyn Daily Eagle at Newspapers.com". Retrieved February 9, 2017.
- ^ Goudsouzian p13-14
- ^ a b c d e "WGBH American Experience. The Hurricane of '38 - PBS". PBS. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
- ^ "Hurricane Loss Put at least $100,000,000 Long Island Press January 2, 1939" (PDF).
- ^ "Hurricane of 1938 May Still Be the Champ". September 3, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
- ^ Oliver Peterson (June 13, 2007). "Push is on to rebuild church steeple". East Hampton Press.
- ^ Robert M. Downie (1998). Block Island—The Sea., pages 58–62
- ^ Robert M. Downie (2008). The Block Island History of Photography, Vol. 2., pages 134–141
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- Blue Hill Observatory. Milton, Massachusetts. September 21, 2010. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
- ^ "The Great Hurricane of 1938: The Long Island Express Part 3". The Weather Doctor Almanac. 2008. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
- ^ Goudsouzian, page 5
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- NOAA. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
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Bibliography
- Goudsouzian, Aram (2004). The Hurricane of 1938. New England Remembers. Beverly, Mass.: Commonwealth Editions. ISBN 978-1-889833-75-0.
- Long, Stephen (2016). Thirty-Eight, The Hurricane that Transformed New England. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20951-8.
Further reading
- Aviles, Lourdes B. (2012). Taken by Storm, 1938: A Social and Meteorological History of the Great New England Hurricane. American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-37-0.
- Bergman, Jonathan C. (September 2007). A New Deal for Disaster: The 'Hurricane of 1938' and Federal Disaster Relief Operations, Suffolk County, New York. Vol. 20. pp. 15–39.
shows how federal relief efforts led to the modern disaster-response system
- Burns, Cherie (2005). The Great Hurricane: 1938. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-893-X.
- Goudsouzian, Aram (September 2004). What Do You Do with a Disaster?' Providence and the Hurricane of 1938. Vol. 62. pp. 26–48.
- Long, Stephen (2016). ISBN 978-0-300-20951-8.
- Scotti, R. A.; Allen, Everett S. (2003) [1976]. A Wind to Shake the World: The Story of the 1938 Hurricane. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 0-316-03426-6.
- Scotti, R. A. (2008). Sudden Sea: The Great Hurricane of 1938. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 978-0-316-73911-5.
- Spurr, Stephen H. (1956). "Natural restocking of forests following the 1938 hurricane in Central New England" (PDF). Ecology. 37 (3): 443–451. JSTOR 1930166.