Hurricane Hugo
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Meteorological history | |
---|---|
Formed | September 10, 1989 |
Extratropical | September 23, 1989 |
Dissipated | September 25, 1989 |
Category 5 major hurricane | |
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS) | |
Highest winds | 160 mph (260 km/h) |
Lowest pressure | 918 mbar (hPa); 27.11 inHg |
Overall effects | |
Fatalities | 67 direct, 40 indirect (107 total) |
Damage | $11 billion (1989 USD) |
Areas affected |
|
IBTrACS | |
Part of the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season |
Hurricane Hugo was an intense
The eleventh tropical cyclone, eighth named storm, sixth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the
The hurricane's impacts continued into the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, causing over $1 billion in damage. Wind gusts up to 168 mph (270 km/h) were measured in Saint Croix, where property damage exceeded $500 million with over 90 percent of buildings damaged; three people were killed on the island. Widespread damage occurred in Puerto Rico and much of the island suffered power and water service failures. Eight people were killed in Puerto Rico and nearly 28,000 people were left homeless.
Hugo was the strongest hurricane to make landfall on the
The cleanup and recovery efforts that followed were extensive throughout the areas affected by Hugo. There were at least 39 fatalities during the post-storm recovery phase; more people died in South Carolina in the hurricane's aftermath than during its passage. American troops were deployed in Saint Croix to quell pervasive looting that began amid Hugo's devastation—this was the first deployment of the American military in response to a domestic crisis
Meteorological history
The
At 18:00
Hugo's encounter with Puerto Rico weakened the storm substantially: its
Reconnaissance flight N42RF
Between September 15 and September 22, aircraft from the
Preparations
Watches and warnings
In the northeastern Caribbean, warnings issued by the NHC were disseminated by the six meteorological offices of the Caribbean Meteorological Council.
Caribbean
Across both Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, 217 shelters were opened; over 161,000 people sought refuge in these shelters.
At least 30,000 people evacuated in Puerto Rico, making it one of the largest evacuations in the territory's history; government and media representatives described the evacuation as "the best coordinated weather event they could recall."
The Bahamas and the Continental United States
Buildings were boarded up in
The hurricane watch for
Impact
Country | Deaths | Damage |
---|---|---|
Antigua and Barbuda | 2[7] | $200 million[50] |
British Virgin Islands | — | $50 million[51] |
Dominica | — | $20 million[52] |
Guadeloupe | 11[7] | $880 million[53] |
Montserrat | 10[7] | $260 million[53] |
Netherlands Antilles | 11[54] | $50 million[54] |
Puerto Rico | 8[7][55] | $2 billion[26] |
St. Kitts and Nevis
|
1[7] | $46 million[56] |
Contiguous United States | 21[7] | $7 billion[57] |
U.S. Virgin Islands
|
3[7] | $500 million[2] |
Caribbean
Hugo was the strongest storm to traverse the northeastern Caribbean since Hurricane David in 1979.[4][27] The Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes (SLOSH) model estimated that storm surge from Hugo led to coastal water levels 3–4 ft (0.91–1.22 m) above normal tidal heights along Saint Croix and the eastern end of Puerto Rico.[7] These equated to storm surge heights of around 7–8 ft (2.1–2.4 m).[58] Water levels of 2–3 ft (0.61–0.91 m) above normal were estimated to have occurred along the northern coast of Puerto Rico.[7] Rainfall on the Caribbean islands averaged between 5–10 in (130–250 mm).[31] The NHC's preliminary report on the hurricane enumerated 28 fatalities in the eastern Caribbean while media reports tallied over 30.[7][51] As many as 100,000 people may have been left homeless throughout the region as a result of Hugo.[51]
Guadeloupe and Montserrat were hardest-hit among the Leeward Islands, and collectively suffered over $1 billion in damage and recorded 21 fatalities.[7][53][59] Though less severe, widespread damage was also inflicted by Hugo across the remainder of the Leeward and Windward Islands. Extensive flooding occurred on Antigua, and power outages befell the island after utility poles were uprooted by the storm.[27] The damage was heaviest towards the southern portions of the island as the center of Hugo passed 50 mi (80 km) south.[20]: 3 There were 2 deaths and 181 injuries. Another 509 people were left homeless following damage wrought to 15 percent of homes.[50] Partial damage was documented on 1,500 homes and total loss was documented on 106. Thirty percent of fishing vessels were also damaged by the hurricane, equating to thousands of boats.[20]: 3 [51] The total cost of damage reached nearly EC$200 million.[50] Hugo's damage toll in Saint Kitts and Nevis amounted to $46 million,[56] largely sustained by shoreline structures and crops.[53] This equated to 32 percent of the country's gross domestic product.[52] Homes, government buildings, and trees were damaged by the storm.[51][60] A fifth of the country was rendered homeless and the entire populace lost power and water.[56] Ninety percent of the residents of Nevis lost their homes. One person was killed after a wall collapsed upon him.[51][61]
Dominica was most affected among the Windward Islands.
The hurricane moved near the Virgin Islands and made two landfalls in Puerto Rico as it egressed the Caribbean, causing considerable destruction. Estimates of the damage toll in this region vary but include over $50 million each for the British Virgin Islands and Netherlands Antilles, $2 billion for Puerto Rico, and $500 million for Saint Croix.[51][26][2][54] Hugo's center was 85 mi (137 km) southwest of Sint Maarten at its closest approach; a station there reported a maximum sustained wind 46 mph (74 km/h) and a peak gust of 78 mph (126 km/h).[7] These winds unroofed homes and uprooted trees and power lines.[5]: A5 Roughly 25 sailboats sustained severe damage and one boat with four people went missing.[51] Sint Eustatius and Saba of the Netherlands Antilles lost much of their vegetation. Many homes, piers, and public buildings suffered severe damage on the two islands.[65] Eleven people were killed in the Netherlands Antilles and caused $50 million in damage there.[54] The damage toll in the British Virgin Islands exceeded $50 million, with the loss of at least half of the islands' agriculture. Around 30 percent of homes were unroofed.[51] Power outages affected the British Virgin Islands. The Associated Press reported "numerous injuries" and "scores of homes destroyed" on Tortola, the largest island in the BVI.[60] A third of the island's private homes were wrecked.[51] The hurricane also caused widespread power outages in the Dominican Republic while tracking northwest towards the continental United States.[37]: 4A
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe sustained the heaviest impacts among the
Telecommunications were knocked out by the storm throughout Guadeloupe as winds brought down power and telephone lines.
Montserrat
Although Montserrat was struck by many significant storms in the 18th and 19th centuries, the last major hurricane to strike the island before Hugo occurred in 1928.[74] The right-front quadrant of Hugo's eyewall moved over Montserrat on September 17, raking the island with sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h).[53] The island may have also experienced wind gusts up to 240 mph (390 km/h).[75] The hurricane exacted a heavy toll over the course of 14 hours.[76] Hugo was the costliest hurricane in Montserrat's history, inflicting $260 million in damage.[53] Entire villages were destroyed by the storm and vegetation was stripped bare.[20]: 4 Most houses on the island were razed or seriously damaged, displacing 11,000 of Montserrat's 12,000 residents.[53] At least minor damage was dealt to nearly every building on the island, with severe damage inflicted on half of all buildings.[76] Approximately ninety percent of homes suffered either major to total roof loss,[77] with the most severe damage occurring in the Kinsale and St. Patrick's areas. Impacts on upscale hotels contributed to the overall loss of 88 percent of hotel rooms on the island.[75] Structural and water damage was sustained by hotels.[51]
All government buildings and schools in Montserrat were impacted.
United States
Hugo was the costliest hurricane in U.S. history at the time and one of its costliest disasters overall, with a damage toll of $8 billion estimated by the NHC.
In addition to the rain, surge, and wind associated with Hugo, the
U.S. Virgin Islands
Hugo was the first significant hurricane to strike the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico region since Hurricane Betsy in 1956.[29] Hugo tracked through the Virgin Islands on September 18 and destroyed 30 percent of homes in the archipelago.[7][84] Generally 6–9 in (150–230 mm) of rain fell across the Virgin Islands, peaking at 11.2 in (280 mm) at Hams Bluff Light in northwestern Saint Croix.[85] However, most rain gauges in the Virgin Islands were destroyed by the hurricane.[86]
The eye of Hugo passed over Saint Croix at 06:00 UTC on September 18 (02:00 a.m. AST).[7] Hurricane-force winds lasted for an unusually long time, battering the island from the late evening of September 17 to the morning of September 18.[87] Peak sustained winds in Hugo at the time were estimated at 140 mph (230 km/h), making it a Category 4 hurricane.[7] The winds unroofed homes and knocked out power in Saint Croix and Saint Thomas.[27] No official wind measurements were taken on Saint Croix as weather observers evacuated their post at Alexander Hamilton International Airport (now known as Henry E. Rholsen International Airport); the extent of the damage suggested that the entire island was within the envelope of the hurricane's strongest winds.[88] Anemometers on two U.S. Navy workboats recorded peak gusts of 161 and 168 mph (259 and 270 km/h). Unofficial reports alleged that Saint Croix experienced gusts in excess of 200 mph (320 km/h), but these were inconsistent with the severity of damage or were otherwise unsubstantiated.[28]
Hugo killed 3 people and left 3,500 homeless on Saint Croix. Private and government property damage exceeded $500 million.
Saint Thomas experienced hurricane-force winds and sustained widespread damage to property and vegetation; damage was less severe than on Saint Croix due to Saint Thomas's position farther away from the core of Hugo.[88] A field survey conducted by the National Academy of Sciences estimated that gusts of up to 121 mph (195 km/h) occurred on the island.[28] Homes were unroofed and boats were heavily damaged or set adrift.[63] The antenna, tower, and transmitter of television station WBNB-TV in Charlotte Amalie were destroyed; the station would not return to the air because of the damage and the owner's inability to afford repairs.[90]
Puerto Rico
Two people drowned in Puerto Rico during Hugo's passage according to reports from the National Research Council and NHC.
Culebra and Vieques, two small islands east of Puerto Rico, experienced harsher impacts than the main island;[92]: 1A between the two, Culebra experienced stronger winds and heavier damage.[28] The devastation in both islands was nonetheless thorough and widespread.[2] Hurricane reconnaissance observations and the resulting damage in Culebra suggested that the island was struck by 150-mph (240 km/h) wind gusts.[93] Southeasterly winds were accelerated by the hills on the sides of Ensenada Honda.[94] The homes of 80 percent of Culebra residents were wrecked.[26] A housing development near the Benjamín Rivera Noriega Airport was completely destroyed.[28] Many boats in Culebra were damaged,[83] including those that sought refuge in Ensenada Honda.[28] On Vieques, a peak gust of 98 mph (158 km/h) was registered, though the damage suggested that gusts of up to 132 mph (212 km/h) may have impacted the island.[28] The roof of a baseball stadium was pried off by the winds.[37]: 4A A thousand families in Vieques were left homeless.[26]
The worst damage on the principal island of Puerto Rico occurred along its northeast coast at Fajardo and Luquillo, where the angle of attack of Hugo's winds was most favorable for high storm surge.[83][95] At Luquillo, the storm surge reached 8 ft (2.4 m), with waves atop the elevated waters reaching at least 10 ft (3.0 m).[95] Two ferries were grounded at Fajardo by the storm surge; boats sustained over $50 million in losses while marinas sustained $25 million in damage.[30] An aerial survey from the U.S. Coast Guard found that winds unroofed 80 percent of homes between San Juan and Fajardo.[96] Roosevelt Roads Naval Station took heavy damage and lost power and water service.[97] Practically every building was damaged, though only minor injuries occurred.[98] High waves along the coast of the San Juan metropolitan area destroyed walls and sidewalks.[95] Condado suffered widespread damage and debris bestrewed its streets.[37]: 4A A mobile home park in Loíza, one of the few in Puerto Rico, was wiped out by the storm surge and strong winds.[95] The winds overturned cars and toppled trees and streetlights around the city.[71]: 1A [38]: 14A Buildings in downtown San Juan suffered partial wall and window failures, though overall damage to buildings in the city was light.[28] Fifty airplanes were destroyed at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport;[37]: 4A repairs to the airport would cost $20 million.[92] : 1A
Power outages affected 80 percent of Puerto Rico.[92]: 9A Power and water supplies in San Juan were cut for more than a week in some areas.[83] At Carraízo Dam, San Juan's primary supplier of water, five electric motors in the pumping station were inundated, disrupting water distribution; replacement of these motors cost $200,000.[30] The lake formed by the dam had begun to rise, and floodgates were rendered inoperable by power outages.[37]: 1A Poor maintenance had left the dam vulnerable to a larger catastrophe; however, Hugo's rainfall was ultimately less than forecast.[30] Power distribution systems in San Juan and other communities were severely crippled, leading to power outages affecting thirty-five municipalities.[26] Many power poles in Puerto Rico held a disproportionate number of electrical conductors, resulting in greater power loss than would otherwise be expected for the conditions experienced. A destroyed communications antenna in El Yunque National Forest cut off communication to Vieques and Culebra.[30] Debris in the forest blocked Puerto Rico Highway 191 and strong winds unroofed the local headquarters of the United States Forest Service.[99] Fallen power lines and damage to over 120 homes marooned the mayor of Arroyo and several others;[38]: 14A the municipality had been struck by waves 35 ft (11 m) high.[63] Damage to highways in Puerto Rico amounted to $40 million, though only one bridge required closure for repairs.[30] Crops on the island including banana and coffee sustained widespread losses.[55]
South Carolina
The eye of Hugo moved ashore
The South Carolina Electric and Gas Company (SCE&G) called Hugo "the single greatest natural disaster ever to strike the state", inflicting $5.9 billion in property damage. The hurricane's trajectory swept across three major South Carolina cities.[102] According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Storm Data publication, there were 35 deaths associated with Hugo in South Carolina. The hurricane's forces killed 13 people while another 22 fatalities were considered "indirectly-related".[101] Among the indirect fatalities were two people killed by house fires started by candles during the storm.[103] Another 420 people were injured throughout the state.[101] The Red Cross documented the destruction of 3,307 single-family homes and "major damage" to another 18,171.[104] Across eight counties, manufacturers incurred $158 million in damage to factories and $750 million in inventory and income losses.[105] Much of the South Carolina coast was subject to the ferocity of the hurricane's forces.[101] Hugo's storm surge wrecked the barrier islands, thoroughly razing many structures. Many homes on Wadmalaw Island and Johns Island were crushed by fallen trees.[103] The Ben Sawyer Bridge connecting the South Carolina mainland to Sullivan's Island was heavily damaged and became stuck in an open position.[83] Rows of beachfront homes on Sullivan's Island were razed by the surge. Ships at the marina in Isle of Palms were crumpled into a heap on the mainland shore.[101] Beach homes on Isle of Palms were moved 150 ft (46 m) off their foundations by an 11-foot (3.4 m) storm surge; in total, 60 homes were destroyed on the island.[106] The damage in Sullivan's Island and Isle of Palms combined was estimated to be approximately $270 million.[101] Every building on the two islands took damage from the hurricane.[1] Storm surge tore off the pavement from coastal roads and destroyed 80 percent at Folly Beach.[106] All coastal state parks with the exception of Hunting Island and Edisto Beach sustained significant damage.[101]
Coastal impacts in South Carolina were extensive beyond Charleston County. The waterfront in
Hugo's acceleration at landfall allowed strong winds to penetrate well inland, causing widespread wind damage across the eastern two-thirds of the state.
North Carolina and Virginia
Across North Carolina, Hugo damaged 2,638 structures and destroyed 205;[122] the damage toll was $1 billion.[123] Losses to crops and livestock amounted to nearly $97 million.[122] There were seven fatalities in the state.[7] Storm surge along the coast of North Carolina west of Cape Fear reached 9 ft (2.7 m) above mean sea level.[122] Three beach communities in Brunswick County, North Carolina, incurred a total of $55 million in damage;[124] with at least 25 beachfront homes battered by the storm;[1] another 100 structures were threatened by coastal erosion. Along parts of the coast, 50 ft (15 m) of beach eroded, including sand dunes that once stood 7–8 ft (2.1–2.4 m) tall. Sixty percent of the sand dunes in Long Beach were eliminated by the hurricane, further exposing areas inland to the storm's fury. Several piers were wrecked by Hugo: the pier at Yaupon Beach was destroyed while a fourth of the pier at Long Beach was lost; the end of the pier at Holden Beach also succumbed to the storm.[1]
With the aid of Hugo's rapid forward motion, the swath of damaging winds produced by Hugo in interior South Carolina penetrated into
Parts of Southwest Virginia were also impacted by the core of strong winds associated with Hugo, which passed through the state as a tropical storm. Bath and Bland counties registered 81-mph (130 km/h) gusts; these were the fastest gusts measured in Virginia in connection with the passing storm. As was the case in North Carolina, the winds downed numerous trees, causing widespread power outages and structural damage. Their arboreal debris obstructed hundreds of roads. Sporadic damage from Hugo occurred as far east as Interstate 95. The damage toll in Virginia was approximately $60 million, with over $40 million incurred in Carroll and Grayson County, Virginia counties;[125] six people were killed statewide.[7]
While Hugo's quick traversal of the Southeastern U.S. enlarged the area of inland wind damage, it also attenuated rainfall totals;[1] rainfall was relatively light for a storm of Hugo's size.[122] In southwestern Virginia and western North Carolina, the topography of the Appalachian Mountains led to a localized area of heavier rainfalls, resulting in 6 in (150 mm) rainfall totals.[83] While Hugo's rainfall was not sufficient to cause major river flooding in North Carolina, minor flooding impacted mountainous areas north and east of Asheville and highways in seven counties.[126] A nursing home in Boone, North Carolina, was evacuated following a flash flood. In Burnsville, North Carolina, flooding prompted the evacuation of 79 prisoners.[122] Rainfall totals of 1–4 in (25–102 mm) occurred throughout southwestern Virginia, with a maximum of 6.5 in (170 mm) in Hillsville, Virginia. Some low-lying areas and streams flooded, including the New and Roanoke rivers; flooding along the South Fork of the Roanoke forced about 60 people to evacuate.[125]
Elsewhere in the United States
Strong winds in
The juxtaposition of Hugo's extratropical remnants (a low-pressure system) over the eastern
Canada
After becoming extratropical, the remnants of Hugo entered Canada into the province of Ontario. In the Niagara Falls area, winds between 37 and 43 mph (60 and 69 km/h) were reported. Winds near 47 mph (76 km/h) were also reported in Toronto. Heavy rainfall also occurred in Ontario, with precipitation in Ontario peaking at 4.5 in (110 mm), while a maximum amount of 1.85 in (47 mm) was reported in Toronto. As a result of the storm, blackouts and car accidents were reported in Toronto. Furthermore, heavy rains and high winds also occurred across the southern portions of Ontario.[133]
The remnants of Hugo tracked northeastward and entered the Canadian province of
Similar effects were reported in New Brunswick, though little rainfall occurred in the province. Winds gusting to 77 mph (124 km/h) was reported in Moncton. As a result of high winds, power poles were toppled and tree branches fell, which caused most of New Brunswick's 15,000 power failures. In addition, several tree and signs were blown over in Saint John and Moncton. The storm also significantly affected the apple crop in New Brunswick. Strong winds were also reported in Newfoundland, with gusts recorded up to 43 mph (69 km/h).[133]
Aftermath
Lesser Antilles
A plane bearing 60 rescue workers and emergency supplies was sent to Guadeloupe from Paris on September 19, with two more relief aircraft held on standby.[27] The crews were tasked with sheltering the homeless, restoring electricity service, and clearing roads.[70] Doctors were also sent to Guadeloupe from La Meynard Hospital in Martinique.[71]: 12 Emergency supplies from Paris were gathered by Catholic Air and Red Cross.[27] Military aircraft delivered 50 tons (45 tonnes) of supplies and over 500 emergency workers to Guadeloupe, along with Minister of Overseas France Louis Le Pensec;[37]: 4A 3,000 soldiers also accompanied the transport.[63] The total cost of repairs on the island was estimated at over €610 million.[134] Two days after Hugo's passage, an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma rescue helicopter crashed in La Désirade, killing nine people.[134] The Guadeloupe government held a competition to design homes that would be quickly built to house the island's homeless population; five of thirty models were selected, and the first homes were built five months after Hugo.[135] The banana industry in Guadeloupe required FF466 million to recover, while the island's hotel industry suffered FF152 million in losses.[69]
The emergency operations center in Montserrat was formally activated on September 18 to effectively deal with the aftermath of Hugo. As more robust communication systems were destroyed by the storm, communications between the island and the outside world were primarily handled by amateur radio.[136][20]: 1 Urgent requests for aid were forwarded by ham radio operators to all embassies and foreign missions in Barbados.[63] The island's reduced radio capabilities were augmented by HMS Alacrity when she arrived in Plymouth on September 18. The ship also brought a helicopter and a crew of 100 sailors that aided in cleaning up roads between Plymouth and W. H. Bramble Airport.[136][20]: 1 Extensive effort was required to clean up Montserrat's roads due to the prevalence of debris.[20]: 4 Along with the crew of the Alacrity, the Barbados Defence Force and Jamaica Defence Force also assisted in road cleanup operations in Montserrat.[20]: 2 The International Rescue Corps maintained a satellite communications link and provided support for 21 national and international organizations in recovery efforts. Rationing on petroleum was enforced, with a limit of four gallons (15 liters) per person. Waterborne illnesses in Hugo's aftermath proved fatal in Montserrat. A temporary hospital was established at the Montserrat Government House following the destruction of a recently completed hospital.[76]
Virgin Islands
President Bush declared the U.S. Virgin Islands a disaster area.
Three days after the storm hit, the
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican Governor Hernandez Colón solicited a disaster declaration for Puerto Rico from President Bush after surveying the damage wrought by Hugo.
While power in San Juan was largely restored within 48 hours, many in Puerto Rico remained without power in the days following Hugo. On September 24, 47,500 businesses and homes in Puerto Rico were without power; the San Juan Star reported that a quarter of electricity customers in Fajardo remained without electric service on October 9, three weeks after Hugo struck the island. Residents of Puerto Rico's northeastern coast were encouraged to
Continental United States
An overnight curfew was enacted by Charleston Mayor Joseph P. Riley Jr. on September 22 while
Between 15–20 thousand people were left homeless in Charleston County.
Retirement
The devastation caused by Hugo led to the name being retired in The spring of 1990 by the World Meteorological Organization from the rotating lists of Atlantic hurricane names. It was replaced with the name Humberto when the 1989 naming list was used next in 1995.[153][154][155]
Ecological aftermath
The defoliation of mangroves and the introduction of freshwater runoff into brackish waters created anoxic conditions that killed many fish in Guadeloupe's mangrove habitats; fish populations would recover by January 1990.[156] The low species richness of mangrove forests was found to a contributing factor to Hugo's damage upon vegetation. Forests with a greater vertical extent and higher species richness were more protected from the hurricane's effects.[67] Bat populations in Montserrat dropped 20-fold in response to extensive habitat loss and community composition transitioned from one dominated by small frugivores to one dominated by larger frugivores and omnivores.[157][158] Extensive defoliation was documented in the forests of Dominica, Guadeloupe, Montserrat, and Puerto Rico, where vegetation was stripped bare of their flowers, fruits, and leaves.[159]
A survey of bird populations in Saint Croix observed that Hugo's aftermath may have stressed birds more than the hurricane's immediate meteorological forces. Frugivorous, nectarivorous, and seminivorous bird populations declined most among avian diet groups as a result of vegetation loss. The bridled quail-dove (Geotrygon mystacea) was driven out of its traditional habitats on Saint Croix. Declines in the populations of certain bird species were also noted in Saint John. The destruction of habitats forced the relocation of some avian species such as the pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) and northern waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis).[160] The populations or habitats of three endangered Puerto Rican birds were affected by Hugo: the Puerto Rican amazon (Amazona vittata), the Yellow-shouldered blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus), and the Puerto Rican plain pigeon (Columba inornata wetmorei).[159] El Yunque National Forest lost 15 percent of its trees, valued at $5.2 million. However, the increased exposure to sunlight following the loss of tree canopies led to increased diversity of plant species.[99] In Montserrat, the endemic Montserrat oriole (Icterus oberi) was driven out of the South Soufriere Hills after losing much of its habitat.[159]
Sewage contamination and poor water quality briefly impacted shellfish populations along the coast of South Carolina. The turbulent action generated by Hugo in streams lowered concentrations of
In popular culture
- Hugo, la chanson du cyclone [Hugo, the song of the cyclone], Thomas Fersen, 1995[162]
- Sois belle [Be beautiful], Expérience 7, 1989 (national tribute to Guadeloupe after the passage of Hurricane Hugo)
See also
- List of North Carolina hurricanes (1980–1999)
- Hurricane Hazel (1954) – quickly moved ashore the Carolinas, causing widespread damage into eastern Canada
- Hurricane Gracie (1959) – made landfall on the south end of Edisto Island in South Carolina as a Category 4 hurricane
- Hurricane Georges (1998) – impacted much of the Lesser and Greater Antilles at a similar strength
- Hurricane Maria (2017) – wrought devastation across parts of the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico, leading to a significant humanitarian crisis
- Hurricane Lee (2023) – also achieved Category 5 status at a very easterly position
Notes
- ^ The death and damage tolls are aggregated from different sources focusing on individual areas. Some sources provide disparate fatality figures;[1] the National Hurricane Center preliminary report on Hugo reported 49 deaths. At least another 31 people were killed before or after the storm's passage.[2][3][4][5]: 5A The National Weather Service in Wilmington, North Carolina, reports 86 total deaths in connection with Hugo.[1]
- Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale.[6]
- ^ Dates of occurrences are based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) unless otherwise noted.
- ^ a b c HURDAT, the official database for the intensities and tracks of Atlantic tropical cyclones,[11] lists the maximum sustained winds of storms to the nearest five knots.[12] Conversions to miles per hour (mph) and kilometers per hour (km/h) for values drawn from this database are derived from the original value in knots and rounded to the nearest five.
- ^ This tabulation only includes direct fatalities associated with the hurricane's forces.
- ^ This figure does not account for inflation.[57]
References
- Sources
- Berke, Philip; Wenger, Dennis (1991). "Montserrat: Emergency Planning, Response and Recovery Related to Hurricane Hugo" (PDF). Texas A&M University. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 7, 2020. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
- Chung, Riley, ed. (1994). Hurricane Hugo, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Charleston, South Carolina, September 17-22, 1989. National Research Council. ISBN 978-0-309-04475-2– via The National Academies Press.
- Haymond, Jacqueline L.; Hook, Donal D.; Harms, William R. (eds.). "Hurricane Hugo: South Carolina Forest Land Research and Management Related to the Storm" (PDF). National Weather Service. United States Forest Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
- "Hurricane Hugo / September 10–22, 1989" (PDF). Homeland Security Digital Library (National Disaster Survey Report). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. May 1990.
- Learning from Hurricane Hugo: Implications for Public Policy (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency. June 1992. Retrieved April 10, 2020 – via Homeland Security Digital Library.
- Miller, H. Crane (October 1990). Hurricane Hugo: Learning from South Carolina (PDF) (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 17, 2018. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
- Rubin, Claire B.; Popkin, Roy (January 1990). "Disaster Recovery After Hurricane Hugo in South Carolina" (PDF). Boulder, Colorado: The Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2013. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
- Sheffield, Raymond M.; Thompson, Michael T. (June 1992). "Hurricane Hugo: Effects on South Carolina's Forest Resource" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Asheville, North Carolina. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 8, 2017. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
- "Storm Data" (PDF). Storm Data. 31 (9). Asheville, North Carolina: National Centers for Environmental Information. September 1989. ISSN 0039-1972. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 21, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
- Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Armstrong, Tim (September 21, 2014). "Hurricane Hugo". Wilmington, North Carolina: National Weather Service Wilmington, North Carolina. Archived from the original on May 26, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Storm Data", p. 54.
- ^ ISSN 0364-5037. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 20, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e Glass, Robert (September 17, 1989). "Caribbean islands cautious of Hugo". The State. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Associated Press. Retrieved April 19, 2020. (subscription required)
- ^ a b c "Hugo Kills 9 As It Closes In On Puerto Rico". The Atlanta Constitution. Atlanta, Georgia. Associated Press. September 18, 1989. pp. A1, A5. Retrieved May 9, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Goldenburg, Stan (June 1, 2018). "A3) What is a super-typhoon? What is a major hurricane? What is an intense hurricane?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.11. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from the original on June 15, 2006. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq Lawrence, Miles B. (November 15, 1989). Hurricane Hugo (PDF) (Preliminary Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2020 – via National Weather Service.
- ^ a b US Forest Service, p. 387, Hurricane Hugo's Initial Effects on Red-Cockated Woodpeckers in the Francis Marion National Forest.
- .
- ^ JSTOR 25735403.
- ^ Landsea, Chris; Franklin, James; Beven, Jack (May 2015). "The revised Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT2)" (PDF). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2020. Retrieved April 1, 2020.
- ^ "Original HURDAT Format". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved April 1, 2020.
- ^ "Hurricane Lorenzo Became the Strongest on Record in the Eastern Atlantic, Then Struck the Azores". The Weather Channel. TWC Product and Technology LLC. October 4, 2019. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
- ^ a b "NOAA Aircraft: Image 4". NOAA Celebrates 200 Years of Science, Service, and Stewardship. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. May 12, 2017. Archived from the original on December 11, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
- ^ S2CID 52062413.
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- .
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Further reading
- Duteil, Alain (1989). Hugo, ou, L'hiver en Guadeloupe (in French). Centre d'édition et de diffusion international du livre. ISBN 978-2-908324-01-3.
- Guimaraes, Paulo, Frank L. Hefner, and Douglas P. Woodward. "Wealth and income effects of natural disasters: An econometric analysis of Hurricane Hugo." Review of Regional Studies 23.2 (1993): 97.
- Koussoula-Bonneton, Athanasia (February 2014). "Le passage dévastateur d'un ouragan: conséquences socio-économiques. Le cas du cyclone Hugo en Guadeloupe". La Météorologie (in French). 8 (7). Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe: University of the French West Indies: 25. .
- Scatena, F.N.; Larsen, M.C. (1991). "Physical Aspects of Hurricane Hugo in Puerto Rico". Biotropica. 23 (4): 317–323. JSTOR 2388247.
External links
- Media related to Hurricane Hugo at Wikimedia Commons
- Photo gallery of Hurricane Hugo's impacts in South Carolina – The Post and Courier
- Helicopter footage of damage in Pawleys' Island, South Carolina – YouTube