Alamut Castle
Alamut Castle | |
---|---|
الموت | |
Town or city | Moallem Kalayeh |
Country | Iran |
Coordinates | 36°26′41″N 50°35′10″E / 36.44472°N 50.58611°E |
Completed | 865 |
Destroyed | 1256 |
Alamut (Persian: الموت, lit. 'eagle's nest') is a mountain fortress at an altitude of 2163 meters at the central Alborz, in the Iranian stanza of Qazvin, about 100 kilometers from Tehran. In 1090 AD, the Alamut Castle, a mountain fortress in present-day Iran, came into the possession of
Alamut, which is the most famous of these strongholds, was thought impregnable to any military attack and was fabled for its heavenly gardens, library, and laboratories where philosophers, scientists, and theologians could debate in intellectual freedom.[1]
The stronghold survived adversaries including the
Today, it lies in ruins.
Origins and name
Part of a series on Islam Isma'ilism |
---|
Islam portal |
The Alamut castle was built by the
List of Nizari Isma'ili rulers at Alamut (1090–1256)
- Nizari da'is who ruled at Alamut
- Hassan-i Sabbah(حسن صباح) (1050–1124)
- Kiya Buzurg-Ummid (کیا بزرگ امید) (1124–1138)
- Muhammad ibn Kiya Buzurg-Ummid(محمد بزرگ امید) (1138–1162)
- Imams in occultation at Alamut
- Imams who ruled at Alamut
- Hasan (II) Ala Dhikrihi al-Salam (امام حسن علی ذکره السلام) (1162–1166)
- Nur al-Din Muhammad (II) (امام نور الدین محمد) (1166–1210)
- Jalal al-Din Hasan (III) (امام جلال الدین حسن) (1210–1221)
- Al al-Din Muhammad (III) (امام علاء الدین محمد) (1221–1255)
- Rukn al-Din Khurshah (امام رکن الدین خورشاه) (1255–1256)
History
Following his expulsion from Egypt over his support for
Capture of Alamut
By 1090 AD, the Seljuq vizier Nizam al-Mulk had already given orders for Hassan's arrest and therefore Hassan was living in hiding in the northern town of Qazvin, approximately 60 km from the Alamut castle.[9]: 23 There, he made plans for the capture of the fortress, which was surrounded by a fertile valley whose inhabitants were mainly fellow Shi’i Muslims, the support of whom Hassan could easily gather for the revolt against the Seljuqs. The castle had never before been captured by military means and thus Hassan planned meticulously.[9]: 23
In the summer of 1090 AD, Hassan set out from Qazvin towards Alamut on a mountainous route through Andej. He remained at Andej disguised as a schoolteacher named Dehkhoda until he was certain that a number of his supporters had settled directly below the castle in the village of Gazorkhan or had gained employment at the fortress itself.[9]: 23 Still in disguise, Hassan made his way into the fortress, earning the trust and friendship of many of its soldiers. Careful not to attract the attention of the castle's Zaydi ‘Alid lord, Mahdi, Hassan began to attract prominent figures at Alamut to his mission. It has even been suggested that Mahdi's own deputy was a secret supporter of Hassan, waiting to demonstrate his loyalty on the day that Hassan would ultimately take the castle.[9]: 23
Earlier in the summer, Mahdi visited Qazvin, where he received strict orders from Nizam al-Mulk to find and arrest Hassan who was said to be hiding in the province of Daylaman. Upon his return to the Alamut fortress, Mahdi noticed several new servants and guards employed there. His deputy explained that illness had taken many of the castle's workers and it was fortunate that other labourers were found from the neighbouring villages. Worried about the associations of these workers, Mahdi ordered his deputy to arrest anyone with connections to the Ismailis.[9]: 22
Mahdi's suspicions were confirmed when Hassan finally approached the lord of the fortress, revealing his true identity and declared that the castle now belonged to him. Immediately, Mahdi called upon the guards to arrest and remove Hassan from the castle, only to find them prepared to follow Hassan's every command. Astounded, he realized he had been tricked and was allowed to exit the castle freely.[9]: 23 Before leaving however, Mahdi was given a draft of 3000 gold dinars as payment for the fortress, payable by a Seljuq officer in service to the Isma'ili cause named Ra’is Muzaffar who honoured the payment in full.[9]: 23 The Alamut fortress was captured from Mahdi and therefore from Seljuq control by Hassan and his supporters without resorting to any violence.[9]: 24
Construction and intellectual development
With Alamut now in his possession, Hassan swiftly embarked on a complete re-fortification of the complex. By enhancing the walls and structure of a series of storage facilities, the fortress was to act as a self-sustaining stronghold during major confrontations. The perimeters of the rooms were lined with limestone, so as to preserve provisions to be used in times of crisis. Indeed, when the Mongols invaded the fortress, Juvayni was astonished to see stored countless supplies in perfect condition to withstand a possible siege.[9]: 27
Next, Hassan took on the task of irrigating the surrounding villages of the Alamut valley. The land at valley's floor was arable land, allowing for the cultivation of dry crops including barley, wheat and rice. In order to make available the maximum amount of cultivable land, the ground was terraced under Hassan's direction.[9]: 27
The construction of Alamut's famous library likely occurred after Hassan's fortification of the castle and its surrounding valley. With its astronomical instruments and rare collection of works, the library attracted scholars and scientists of a variety of religious persuasions from around the world who visited it for many months at a time, hosted by the Isma'ilis.[9]: 27 By and large the writings of the Persian Ismailis, both scientific and doctrinal, did not survive beyond the Alamut period. In addition to the rich literature they had already produced in Arabic, the relocation of the Ismaili center to Iran now prompted a surge in Persian Ismaili literature.[8]: 121
One of the earliest losses of the library came during the early years of the
Concealment and emergence: Imamat at Alamut
With the death of Hassan-i Sabbah in 1124 AD, the Alamut fortress was now in the command of the da’i
Muhammad ibn Kiya Buzurg
Accordingly,
Imam Hasan ‘ala Dhikrihi al-Salam
Taken by illness in 1162 AD, Muhammad was succeeded by Hasan, who was then about thirty-five years of age.
Ismaili version of the Alamut history
What little we know about the Imamate at Alamut is narrated to us by one of the greatest detractors of the Ismailis, Juvayni. A Sunni Muslim scholar, Juvayni was serving Mongol patrons. While he then could not openly celebrate the Mongol victories over other Muslim rulers, the Mongol victory over the Nizari Ismailis, who Juvayni considered heretics and “as vile as dogs” became the focus of his work about Mongol invasions.
According to the Ismaili version of the events, in the year following the death of the Imam-Caliph
: 391Imam Nur al-Din Muhammad
Succeeding
Imam Jalal al-Din Hasan
Within Persia, the Nizaris of the qiyama period largely disregarded their former political endeavours and became considerably isolated from the surrounding Sunni world. The death of Muhammad II however, ushered in a new era for the Nizaris, under the direction of the next Imam Jalal al-din Hasan. Imam Jalal al-Din Hasan invited Sunni scholars and jurists from across Khurasan and Iraq to visit Alamut, and even invited them to inspect the library and remove any books they found to be objectionable.
Imam Ala al-Din Muhammad
After his death in 1221, Imam Jalal al-Din Hasan was succeeded by his son ‘Ala al-Din Muhammad. Ascending to the throne at only nine years of age, Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad continued his father's policy of maintaining close relations with the Abbasid caliph.[10]: 406 Under the leadership of Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad, the need for an Imam to constantly guide the community according to the demands of the times was emphasized. Intellectual life and scholarship flourished under the rule of Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad. The Nizari libraries were invigorated with scholars from across Asia, fleeing from the invading Mongols.[8]: 147
Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah
By the time of Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad's murder in 1255, the Mongols had already attacked a number of the Ismaili strongholds in Quhistan. Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad was succeeded by his eldest son Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah who engaged in a long series of negotiations with invading Mongols, and under whose leadership, the Alamut castle was surrendered to the Mongols.[13]
The Mongol invasion and collapse of the Nizari Ismaili state
The expansion of Mongol power across Western Asia depended upon the conquest of the Islamic lands, the complete seizure of which would be impossible without dismantling the ardent Nizari Ismaili state.[9]: 75
The first Mongol attack on the Ismailis came in April 1253 AD, when many of the Quhistani fortresses were lost to the
After the massacres at Tun in 1256 AD, Hulegu became directly involved in the Mongol campaign to eliminate the Ismaili centres of power. From a lavish tent erected for him at Tus, Hulegu summoned the Ismaili governor at Quhistan, Nasir al-Din Muhtasham and demanded the surrender of all fortresses in his province. Nasir al-Din explained that submission could only come at the Imam's orders and that he, as governor, was powerless to seek the Ismailis' compliance.[12]: 266
Meanwhile, Imam ‘Ala al-Din Mohammad, who had been murdered, was succeeded by his son
In the hands of Hulegu, Rukn al-Din was forced to send the message of surrender to all the castles in the Alamut valley. At the Alamut fortress, the Mongol Prince Balaghai led his troops to the base of the castle, calling for the surrender of the commander of Alamut, Muqaddam al-Din. It was decreed that should he surrender and pledge his allegiance to the Great Khan within one day, the lives of those at Alamut would be spared. Maymundiz was reluctant and wondered if the Imam's message of surrender was an actually act of duress.[9]: 79 In obedience to the Imam, Muqaddam and his men descended from the fortress, and the Mongol army entered Alamut and began its demolition.[9]: 79
Compared with Maymundiz, the Alamut fortress was far better fortified and could have long withstood the assaults of the Mongol army. However, the castle was relatively small in size and was easily surrounded by the Mongols. Still, the most significant factor in determining the defeat of the Ismailis at Alamut was the command by the Imam for the surrender of the castles in the valley. Many of the other fortresses had already complied, therefore not only would Muqaddam's resistance have resulted in a direct battle for the castle, but the explicit violation of the instructions of the Imam, which would impact significantly on the Ismaili commander's oath of total obedience to the Imam.[9]: 80
The conquest of the Ismaili castles was critical to the Mongol's political and territorial expansion westward. However, it was depicted by Juvayni as a "matter of divine punishment upon the heretics [at] the nest of Satan".[9]: 81 Juvayni's depiction of the fall of the Nizari Ismaili state reveals the religious leanings of the anti-Ismaili historian. When Rukn al-Din arrived in Mongolia with promises to persuade the prevailing Ismaili fortresses to surrender, the Great Khan Mongke no longer believed the Imam to be of use. En route back to his homeland, Rukn al-Din was put to death. In his description of this, Juvayni concludes that the Imam's murder cleansed "the world which had been polluted by their evil".[9]: 83 Subsequently, in Quhistan, the Ismailis were called by thousands to attend large gatherings, where they were massacred. While some escaped to neighbouring regions, the Ismailis who perished in the massacres following the capture of the Ismaili garrisons numbered nearly 100,000.[9]: 83
According to Ata-Malik Juvayni during the assault on the Alamut fort, "Khitayan" built siege weapons resembling crossbows were used.[14][15][16] "Khitayan" meant Chinese and it was a type of arcuballista, deployed in 1256 under Hulagu's command.[17] Stones were knocked off the castle and the bolts "burnt" a great number of the Assassins. They could fire a distance around 2,500 paces.[18] The device was described as an ox's bow.[19] Pitch which was lit on fire was applied to the bolts of the weapon before firing.[20] Another historian thinks that instead gunpowder might have been strapped onto the bolts which caused the burns during the battle recorded by Juvayini.[21]
After the Mongol invasion
It was assumed that with the initial siege of the Alamut Castle in 1256 the Nizari Ismaili presence in the area would have been obliterated. Though the damage was extensive, Nizari forces were able to recapture the Castle in 1275.
Evidence of another wave of destruction in the Safavid period has been found by archaeological studies in 2004 led by Hamideh Chubak. Further evidence suggests another Afghan attack on the castle.[22]
Defense and military tactics
The natural geographical features of the valley surrounding Alamut largely secured the castle's defence. Positioned atop a narrow rock base approximately 180 m above ground level, the fortress could not be taken by direct military force.
The military approach of the
In pursuit of their religious and political goals, the Ismailis adopted various military strategies popular in the
Legend and folklore
During the
The infamous Assassins were finally linked by orientalists scholar
The legends of the Assassins had much to do with the training and instruction of Nizari fida’is, famed for their public missions during which they often gave their lives to eliminate adversaries. Misinformation from the Crusader accounts and the works of anti-Ismaili historians have contributed to the tales of fida’is being fed with hashish as part of their training.
The tales of the fida’is’ training collected from anti-Ismaili historians and orientalists writers were confounded and compiled in Marco Polo’s account, in which he described a "secret garden of paradise".[8]: 16 After being drugged, the Ismaili devotees were said be taken to a paradise-like garden filled with attractive young maidens and beautiful plants in which these fida’is would awaken. Here, they were told by an "old" man that they were witnessing their place in Paradise and that should they wish to return to this garden permanently, they must serve the Nizari cause.[12] So went the tale of the "Old Man in the Mountain", assembled by Marco Polo and accepted by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856), a prominent orientalist writer responsible for much of the spread of this legend. Until the 1930s, Hammer-Purgstall's retelling of the Assassin legends served across Europe as the standard account of the Nizaris.[8]: 16
Modern works on the Nizaris have elucidated the history of the Nizaris and in doing so, showed that much of the earlier popular history was inaccurate. In 1933, under the direction of the Imam
In 2005, the
In popular culture
- In 1918, Harold Lamb published a short story, "Alamut" in Adventure, featuring Lamb's recurring character, Khlit the Cossack.
- In 1938, Alamut. Alamut is a canonical work of Slovene literature, and has been translated into most major literary languages.[25]
- In his 1984 story The Walking Drum, Louis L'Amour uses Alamut as the setting for the rescue of Kerbouchard's father.
- Alamut and Hassan-i-Sabbah are described vividly in William S. Burroughs' 1987 book, The Western Lands.
- Alamut is described in detail towards the end of Umberto Eco's 1987 novel Foucault's Pendulum.
- Hassan-i Sabbah and his rule over Alamut play a role in the 1988 historical novel Samarkand by Lebanese-French writer, Amin Maalouf.
- The Alamut series of fantasy-historical novels was published by American author Judith Tarr between 1989 and 1991.
- A fictional depiction of Alamut castle in the middle of the 13th century and its fall in 1256 is featured in the 1996 The Children of the Grail books series by German author Peter Berling.
- In the White Wolf, Inc., the clan Assamite uses Alamut as its central headquarters.
- A fictional depiction of the fall of the Alamut citadel is described in the 2008 novel Bones of the Hills, from the Conqueror series written by Conn Iggulden.
- Assad, the protagonist in The Lion of Cairo, is an assassin from Alamut.
- Alamut is the city of Princess Tamina (Gemma Arterton) and the location of the Sands of Time in the 2010 film Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time.
- Alamut is featured in the video game franchise Altaïr Ibn-LaʼAhad seeks refuge in the abandoned fortress during his exile from Masyaf and discovers it was unknowingly built atop an ancient temple of the First Civilization, from which he then retrieves several Memory Seals. Alamut and its First Civilization Temple are later mentioned in the game Assassin's Creed Rogue, where it is revealed that the character Edward Kenway came across them during his search for First Civilization sites across the globe. Alamut also appears as a major location in the game Assassin's Creed Mirage, which takes place around the time construction of the fortress finished in 865; it is depicted as the main headquarters of the Assassins, despite them not historically occupying Alamut until two centuries later.
See also
- Atashgah Castle
- Alamut (region)
- Hassan-i Sabbah
- Lambsar Castle
- List of Ismaili castles
- Iranian architecture
- Qiyama (Nizari Isma'ilism)
Family tree
‘Ubayd’Allâh'ibn‘al’Huseyn‘al’Madhî | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Fatimids (Seven pillars ) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isma'il al-Mansur Bi-Nasrillah | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ali az-Zahir | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ma'ad al-Mustansir | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mustā‘līs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Abû’l-Qâsim ʿAhmed al-Mustâ‘lî | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ali al-Hâdî ibn al-Nizâr | Abû‘Ali’Mansûr‘al’Âmir’bi'Ahkâm’îl‘Lâh | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Al-Mohtadî ibn al-Hâdî (Muhammad I) | 'Abd al-Majīd al-Ḥāfiẓ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hasan'I’al‘Kahir’bi‘Quwwat’ûl‘Lâh/Ahkâm’îl‘Lâh | al-Ẓāfir | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
al-Fā'iz | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
al-'Āḍid | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jalâl’ud-Dîn Hasan III | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
‘Alā’ad-Dīn Muḥammad III | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ruknu-d-Dīn Khurshāh | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dawoodi Bohras ) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
References
- ISBN 0-521-42974-9.
- ^ Daftary 2007.
- ^ ISBN 9780195311730.
- ISBN 0887060706.
- ^ Hourcade, B. (December 15, 1985). "ALAMŪT". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved February 10, 2013.
According to legend, an eagle indicated the site to a Daylamite ruler; hence the name, from aloh (eagle) and āmū(ḵ)t (taught).
- S2CID 162401343.
- ^ a b c Daftary 2007, p. 509.
- ^ ISBN 9781558761933.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-85043-464-1.
- ^ ISBN 9780521370196.
- ^ OCLC 257192.
- ^ ISBN 9780812219166.
- ISBN 9780521451406.
- ^ ʻAlā al-Dīn ʻAṭā Malek Joveynī (1958). The history of the World-Conqueror. Harvard University Press. p. 631.
- ^ Journal of Asian History. O. Harrassowitz. 1998. p. 20.
- ISBN 978-81-7304-554-7.
- ISBN 978-0-88953-324-0.
- ^ 'Ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik Juvaini (1958). The history of the world-conqueror. Vol. II. Harvard University Press. pp. 630=631.
- JSTOR 41933065.
- ISBN 978-0-941936-64-4.
- S2CID 162200994.
- ISBN 978-0-19-531173-0.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard (1967). The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam. London: Weidenfeld.
- ^ "Collection". The British Museum. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ^ The Hundredth Anniversary of Vladimir Bartol, the Author of Alamut Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Government Communication Office, Republic of Slovenia, 2003. Accessed 15 December 2010.
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-521-61636-2.