Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș
Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș | |
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art of Romania, eugenics | |
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Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș (Romanian pronunciation:
During
Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș was alleged to be Carol I's illegitimate son, a rumor fueled by his closeness to court. He was himself the father of artist Ana Tzigara-Berza , and father in law of folklorist Marcu Berza.
Biography
Origins and early life
Tzigara-Samurcaș was born on April 4 [O.S. March 23] 1872,[1][2] though some records have "March 1".[3] His exact place of birth was a since-demolished house on Scaune Street, downtown Bucharest. This was to be his childhood home, making him neighbors with physician Wilhelm Kremnitz and his wife, the poet Mite Kremnitz.[3] A popular rumor has Alexandru as the illegitimate son of Domnitor Carol I, the future King of Romania, to whom he was especially close in later years.[4][5][6][7] Historian Lucian Boia gives some credit to this piece of oral history, and notes that Tzigara, like the Kremnitzes, had "an unusually tight relationship" with the royal family.[8] According to literary historian Șerban Cioculescu, Tzigara's royal descent was "Pulcinella's secret";[4] museologist Hunor Boér also calls Tzigara "an illegitimate member of the House of Hohenzollern".[9]
Reporter Ioan Massoff confessed that he once asked Tzigara about this rumor, but that this was regarded as a "faux-pas".[4] Researcher Zigu Ornea contrarily notes that Tzigara may have been spreading the story around, and concludes: "This legend is naturally hard to verify but, in any case, it is a possible one, since Tzigara-Samurcaș was born in 1872 and Carol I was present on our throne, as Domnitor, from 1866."[5] Like Boia, Ornea notes that Tzigara's close relationship with the king, the king's repeated interventions on his behalf "every time [Tzigara's career] got stuck", and his contacts with the Kremnitzes (including Mite, Carol's alleged mistress) were some additional clues to a royal bloodline.[5] Historian Vasile Docea criticizes Ornea's verdict, noting that it relies on questionable sources, and argues that, far from embracing this legend, Tzigara spoke "with evident pride" about his Tzigara roots.[6] According to historian Lucian Nastasă, Docea effectively "disproved" the rumor of Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș's royal descent.[10]
Alexandru's mother and Carol's alleged mistress was Elena Samurcaș, married to Toma Tzigara.
Alexandru was baptized into the Romanian Orthodox Church.[17] A while after Toma Tzigara's death, he was adopted by his childless uncle Ioan Alecu Samurcaș (he officially took the name Tzigara-Samurcaș years later, in 1899); he was also helped with his education by the Kremnitzes, who taught him German, introduced him to high society circles, and regarded him as a son.[18] Ioan, a career diplomat and personal friend of the poet Mihai Eminescu, took Alexandru and his three sisters into his home at Icoanei Street 174. He later bequeathed Alexandru his letters to and from Eminescu, which archivists see as having great documentary value.[3]
The young man's first contacts with history and folk art came by means of his extended family, which collected and preserved documents and art objects.
Early academic career
From 1893,
Back in Romania, Tzigara unsuccessfully applied for the Archeology Chair created at the
In order to support his lectures at the Fine Arts School, Tzigara began gathering
The young scholar was at the time also interested in the development of
Junimea debut
Described by Lucian Nastasă as a case of social climbing, Tzigara's marriage to Maria (1900) brought him into the high circles of aristocracy: Maria, born into the Cantacuzino family (daughter of Alexandru Cantacuzino, former Foreign Affairs Minister), was also the widow of Grigore G. Sturdza (son of the more famous Beizadea Grigore), and as such inherited part of the Sturdza family fortune.[30] Through her mother Coralia, Maria Tzigara-Cantacuzino was additionally related to boyar lines of Moldavia, the Boldurs and the Costakis, as well as to Zulnia, mother of historian Nicolae Iorga.[31] This marriage was reportedly arranged by the Kremnitzes, the couple having as their best men-godfathers two influential political figures: Lupu C. Kostaki and Constantin C. Arion.[32] Moving out of the Samurcaș home, Alexandru lived with his wife, his mother, and his sisters, first at a house on Știrbei Vodă Street, and, from 1904, at a villa on Intrarea Nordului—outside Cișmigiu Gardens.[3]
During the
Tzigara attended, in 1901, a major event in Junimist society: the wedding between Nicolae Iorga and Ecaterina, daughter of scholar Ioan Bogdan, where Tzigara unofficially represented the royal court.[35] Tzigara was the couple's godfather at an Orthodox marriage service held outside the Kingdom of Romania, in Belgerei (Șcheii Brașovului), Transylvania.[36] For a while, Iorga and Bogdan were both interested in obtaining Tzigara a better employment at the University of Bucharest, but their efforts were made useless by the Junimea adversary in government, the National Liberal Party.[37] Before 1903, Tzigara became a literary and art columnist at Epoca newspaper, headed at the time by Maiorescu;[38] the following year, he and Alceu Urechia were putting out a travel yearbook, Anuarul Turiștilor, with contributions from Ștefan Octavian Iosif and Ludovic Mrazek.[39] Iosif became his employee at the Foundation, but, according to historian Nicolae Rauș, was mistreated by Tzigara, who resented his political engagement with the non-Junimist side of Romanian nationalism. Iosif ultimately resigned in April 1913.[40]
During the period, Junimea popularized its causes through Epoca, rather than through their main venue Convorbiri Literare, and, according to Maiorescu's own pronouncement, Tzigara's work was a main asset.[38] Around 1907, Tzigara's writings were also regularly featured in Convorbiri Literare, now edited by Maiorescu's pupil Simion Mehedinți. At the time, Transylvania's Răvașul journal commented that Tzigara's art chronicle and Aurel Popovici's political column were especially "rich" in information, and mentioned that Tzigara and Teohari Antonescu were debating, through the journal, about the characteristics of fortified houses (cule) from Oltenia region.[41] As literary historian Tudor Vianu notes, Tzigara-Samurcaș and architect Aurel Zagoritz centered their contributions here on the scientific study of Romanian folk art, but their presence nevertheless coincided with Convorbiri Literare's decline in readership.[42] Tzigara also published his articles in Iorga's traditionalist magazine Sămănătorul, where he discussed the art exhibits of the Tinerimea Artistică society.[43]
National Museum creation
Around 1901, inspired by the Paris World Fair, Tzigara and other Romanian ethnographers first took into consideration the establishment of a permanent ethnographic collection.[44] Like other Romanian intellectuals, Tzigara preserved his special interest in handicrafts, which, art conservator Isabelle Longuet argues, were "elevated to the status of 'national art' " in the belief that the peasantry represented "an authentic 'Romanianness' ".[45] In similar terms, ethologist Ioana Popescu notes: "[Tzigara's] collections were to become the argument and the source of inspiration for the national ideology and creation."[46] His project came after a similar attempt on the part of art collector Nicolae Minovici, founder of the private folk art museum Casa Minovici,[47] and an even earlier textile art archive, endorsed by Maiorescu (1875).[48]
1906 marked the start of Tzigara's chief work as an ethnographer. That year, he founded the "Museum of Ethnography and National Art", now
As manager, Tzigara-Samurcaș ordered the collection into two distinct sections, dedicated respectively to ethnography-proper and
Tzigara's fieldwork also focused specifically on increasing the museum's ethnographic collection. Particularly active in Oltenia, he was, as Ioana Popescu notes, "more attracted by decorated, colorful objects, used at celebration time."
The developments raised interest among the
Aman Museum and Bucharest University
During those years, Tzigara was also an inspector and evaluator of works collected from
The creation of a separate University of Bucharest Art History Department for Tzigara was a project which split the academic and political world. At the core of such disputes was Nicolae Iorga, from the History Department, who argued that his own courses also covered art, and who consequently became Tzigara's main adversary.[63] The proposal of expanding University was also defeated in Parliament by Lahovary, the Senate president, who probably still resented for his 1906 comments.[60] The debates prolonged themselves over the following years. In 1909, Tzigara-Samurcaș, Grigore Tocilescu and George Murnu competed with each other for the Archeology Chair, and this created a dispute over whether art historians could not lecture in archeology (Murnu eventually won the contest, despite being exposed for plagiarism by Tzigara, in articles for the magazine Noua Revistă Română).[64] The same year, he was in Sweden, Norway and Denmark, where he visited the Skansen, Bygdøy and Lyngby open-air museums, but suggested that a similar project would be redundant at home, arguing that peasant society in Romania was only too visible around Bucharest.[52] He was much more impressed with the Nordiska of Djurgården, which reportedly became the template for his Bucharest museum.[52]
In 1911 (or 1912), Tzigara eventually became a Substitute Professor of Art History at the University of Bucharest,
In support of his activities, Tzigara published a succession of art books. In 1906, Arta publică ("Public Art") appeared in Bucharest, while the
1910s projects and ASTRA conferencing
A 1917 diary entry by historian
During much of that year, after some campaigning to obtain state funds,
Tzigara's scientific work for 1913, when he also attended the
In 1914, Tzigara was appointed Director of the Carol I Foundation.[2] At around the same time, he began a new series of conferences in Austria-Hungary, lecturing on art for the benefit of Romanians in Transylvania and Banat regions. He was also interested in the collection of Transylvanian Romanian artifacts, added to the Bucharest Museum collection.[22] Initially, he was in Lugosch (Lugoj), informing locals about Romanian folk art.[22] One other such event took place in Hermannstadt (Sibiu), where he was invited by ASTRA to speak about the 50 years of development in Romanian art.[77] He created controversy when he purchased the Romanian Eastern Catholic church in Turea (Türe) from the local parson. According to Az Ujság newspaper, the parson was being "unpatriotic" to even discuss the deal; the same source noted that Tzigara also wanted to acquire a stone church in Fildu de Sus (Felsőfüld), which, despite being built by the Romanian Petru Brudu, showed influences from the Central European Renaissance. Az Ujság asked for the church to be granted special protection by the Hungarian state.[78]
The ASTRA conference contained Tzigara' artistic credo: he believed that art was an objective reflection of social and cultural development, identifying the
World War I and Germanophilia
Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, Tzigara-Samurcaș was involved in establishing an embryonic
Unlike Ferdinand and his
The
On December 13 [
As recorded by Archbishop Netzhammer, Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș was open and cooperative in his relationship with the new authorities and the
Tzigara-Samurcaș nonetheless had a complex relationship with his German supervisors. He refused to cooperate with them on several occasions, objecting to the creation of a German Institute within the University, and being strongly opposed to the Central Powers' interventions on
Collaborationism scandal and late 1920s
According to journalist
Romania's sudden return to Francophilia had also brought Marghiloman's downfall, described by Tzigara as an anti-Conservative "
From 1918, Tzigara was allowed to inhabit a new villa, built especially for him as the museum director on Filantropiei (1 Mai) Boulevard 4, where he would spend the following three decades.
As noted by literary critic Dumitru Hîncu, the art historian's wartime conduct was never censured by the interwar governments.
In 1923, Tzigara-Samurcaș was the Inspector General of Museums, under the National Liberals'
Again touring Germany with a series of conferences (1926), Tzigara also spoke at Radio Berlin, making his debut in radio programming.[15] Reportedly, his request of creating a special Romanian section on Berlin's Museum Island was granted by the Weimar Republic in early 1927.[121] On November 1, 1928, he provided the first-ever Radio Romania broadcast in history, with an art lecture specifically written for this purpose.[15] This, Tzigara recalled, was a pro bono activity to please Radio Romania's president Constantin Angelescu, but made the speaker himself very nervous: Tzigara thought his own text bland and his voice ill-adapted for the medium, but took pains to improve them in later broadcasts.[15] In March 1929, Tzigara was a first judge at the original Miss Romania beauty pageant, in a panel which also included Vaida-Voevod, writers Liviu Rebreanu and Nicolae Constantin Batzaria, woman activist Alexandrina Cantacuzino and other public figures.[15][122]
Tzigara's personal collection was increased in the mid 1920s, when General Alexandru Tell left him a trove of military items—in 1927, Radu R. Rosetti pleaded with him to donate these to the reestablished Military Museum.[123] Romanian cabinets appointed Tzigara a national representative at the Universal Exposition in Barcelona, Spain, and organizer of the folk art exhibit at the International Peace Bureau's Balkan Conference in Athens, Greece.[15] The former event was embroiled in controversy when Las Noticias newspaper unwittingly Germanized his surname, as von Tzigara-Samurcaș. This enraged the art historian, who believed himself the victim of a prank by Romanian expatriate Mihai Tican Rumano; as reported by journalist Ignasi Ribera i Rovira, Tzigara confronted Tican Rumano at the Exposition, and physically attacked him.[124] Tzigara also attended the 13th International Congress of Art History in Stockholm, Sweden, and organized the Romanian pavilion at an Art Conference in Helsinki, Finland.[15] His efforts won international recognition, and the French state, through Bucharest Ambassador Gabiel Puaux, presented Tzigara with a gift of Sèvres porcelain.[15] He was also awarded the Order of St. Sava by the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.[15]
1930s
Tzigara's position was threatened in June 1930, when Ferdinand's deposed son Carol II retook his throne. It was alleged that Iorga, a supporter of the new king, asked for Tzigara to be removed from the royal Foundation, but that Carol had stated not being willing to sack "my own uncle."[5][6] A dispute between the two men broke out during the same month, with Tzigara proffering "personal insults [...] a result of which Iorga resigned from the position of university rector."[125] Iorga was however in a position to limit his rival's access to academia when, in 1931, he became Carol II's Prime Minister. His legislative proposal, limiting the number of academic positions an individual could hold, was probably aimed specifically at Tzigara and other personal enemies (as Lucian Nastasă writes, Iorga was himself collecting some five monthly salaries from his work with the state).[126]
At around the same time, Tzigara became a contributor to the official literary and scientific magazine,
In the 1920s and '30s, Tzigara was host to several foreign researchers. Columbia University professor Charles Upson Clark called his institution "splendid", finding it partly responsible for a "distinct revival" in peasant crafts.[133] He described the museum as "a revelation of the artistic endowment of the Roumanian peasant."[134] French archivist François de Vaux de Foletier visited his museum in 1934, later writing, in Monde et Voyages magazine, that it featured "very interesting galleries of Romanian ethnography".[135] Beginning 1933, Tzigara was several times interviewed by Eugen Wolbe, the German biographer of Romanian kings, who had been sent to him by Carol II. Tzigara also reviewed Wolbe's texts, including his work on Queen Elisabeth (a "weak" study, in Tzigara's opinion), and described the visiting writer as an unreliable amateur: "that pensioned ex-Gymnasiallehrer still had the audacity to select himself such august subjects, with the pretext of 'gaining many new friends for the beautiful country' of Romania, of which yet he himself knew so little!"[136] Tzigara was upset to receive a copy of Wolbe's 1937 work on Ferdinand, which, he claimed, entirely ignored specific criticism; he also approved of Prime Minister Gheorghe Tătărescu's decision to ban the volume in its Romanian edition (the censoring left Wolbe indifferent, a fact noted in one of his letters to Tzigara).[136] Tzigara's rival Iorga, probably incited by this controversy and by his own work with Wolbe, gave the book a positive review in his journal Neamul Românesc, calling the government measure "regrettable", and receiving further criticism from Tzigara, through Convorbiri.[136]
The Carol I Museum increased in size throughout the interwar, organized several exhibits,[137] and, in 1931, inaugurated its Ethnographic Section at the new Kiseleff location.[50] In parallel, Tzigara popularized Romanian handicrafts abroad with his new French-language tract, Tapis Roumains ("Romanian Carpets").[138] Other contributions, published by Convorbiri Literare in 1934, include an introduction to Alexandru Odobescu's posthumous texts, Ineditele lui Odobescu ("Odobescu's Unpublished Texts")[139] and an edition of Odobescu' 1895 suicide note.[140] In 1935, he and journalist Aida Vrioni put out Paradoxele vieții artistice ("Paradoxes of Artistic Life").[141] Another work, grouping his articles in defense of the Museum's construction, was published in 1936 as Muzeografie românească ("Romanian Museography").[1] In November of that year, he was in Sfântu Gheorghe as an honored guest of the Szekely National Museum and of the local benefactor, Baron Béla Szentkereszty.[88] Tzigara and cultural historian Nicolae N. Condeescu also left a monograph on the Peleș Castle, Carol I's residence in Sinaia.[142]
As editor of Convorbiri Literare, Tzigara also entered a polemic with a younger Maiorescu disciple, the critic and novelist Eugen Lovinescu. At the root of this debate stood Lovinescu's book on Mite Kremnitz and her affair with Eminescu, seen as a national poet and Junimist herald. Joining in with other conservatives who accused Lovinescu of being a "pornographer", Tzigara claimed to defend Eminescu's image from the book's impiety,[143] although the details had been largely picked up from Kremnitz's own memoirs, as published by Tzigara himself.[144] Lovinescu offered his replies in Adevărul, accusing Tzigara of "literary incompetence", and deploring the decline of Convorbiri beyond the threshold of professionalism: "if, under previous directions, the magazine steered away from its stated mission [...], the deviance was at least made in an honorable direction, that is to say in the direction of history writing; the scientific seriousness of its two former directors had made it possible for Convorbiri to have valid contributions in areas other than literature."[145] In reaction to claims of irreverence, he derided his adversary's artistic expertise as being about "Easter eggs", and defended his narrative as a sample of respect for Eminescu's life and legacy.[143]
In 1932, Tzigara's quarrel with Tafrali became a legal case. Tzigara argued that Tafrali was obligated to deposit a copy of his Monuments byzantins de Curtea de Argeș at the Foundation, even though this legal requirement did not address books published abroad.[146] By 1936, Iorga was pretending not to see his rivals, including Tzigara, at public functions where they appeared together. This was noted by linguist Alexandru Rosetti, who, during one event at Peleș, took Tzigara by the arm and "crossed [Iorga's] path over and over again", provoking his irritation.[147] Tzigara met significant opposition in his bid for Romanian Academy membership, primarily from Academy member Iorga.[148] He was eventually elected a corresponding member[50] in 1938, when Iorga's influence was being challenged by his younger peers.[118] The same year, he was pensioned from his positions at Cernăuți University and the Foundation.[2][149] In 1939, he dedicated himself to completing his homage to the memory of Carol I, on his 100th birthday: Din viața regelui Carol I. Mărturii contemporane și documente inedite ("From the Life of King Carol I. Contemporary Testimonials and Never-before Published Documents"), called "splendid" by Lucian Nastasă.[150]
World War II and final years
Also in 1939, Tzigara-Samurcaș resigned from his editorial office at Convorbiri, which was taken over by writer and linguist I. E. Torouțiu. Tzigara announced this change with a final editorial piece, which read: "Satisfied to have insured the magazine's future, we announce at this moment that we are placing our directorial office in the hands of a new generation, which is led by Professor I. E. Torouțiu, [...] who with his valuable and sizable published works, appreciating Junimea's role in the movement to renew the Romanian literary language, will know how to carry on the ever-lasting flame of Junimist ideas".[151] The resignation came some two years after writer Vlaicu Bârna had described Convorbiri as a "living carcass", pleading with Tzigara to bury it.[152]
Tzigara was focusing his research on establishing connections between
In summer 1940, during a period when Carol II was trying to calm tensions between Romania and Germany, Tzigara, Ion Nistor, Grigore Antipa, Ion Sân-Giorgiu and other academics greeted a Nazi visitor, scholar Herbert Cysarz.[155] After 1940, Romania ousted Carol II's National Renaissance Front government, replacing it with an openly fascist, pro-Axis regime, the National Legionary State. In parallel, Tzigara managed to gather political support for terminating Nicolae Ghica-Budești's contract and, in 1941, hired architect Gheorghe Ionescu to finalize the Museum's construction.[2] Late in the same year, he was one of the Romanian scholars who welcomed German Romance studies expert Ernst Gamillscheg on his visit to Bucharest.[156] In 1942, he was tasked by Romania's military dictator Ion Antonescu with creating a monumental National Heroes' Cemetery in Carol Park, but the building works were cut short by the reversal of fortunes on the Eastern Front.[157] Also then, he returned to research with a book about the carpets and rugs of Oltenia, which notably stated his ethnic nationalist credo in art: "By using the everlasting heritage of our beautiful folk art in different fields, we will be easily able to get rid of the foreign influences that pervaded Romanian households."[46]
Shortly after the
The official establishment of
Legacy
Tzigara's contribution as an art historian has received mixed evaluations. According to Lucian Nastasă, his 1911 course at the Bucharest University was the first professional approach to the subject, after the "somewhat organized" attempts on Odobescu's part.
Tzigara-Samurcaș's Museum building was only finished after his death, later in the 1950s.
According to Lucian Boia, Tzigara's work with the Germans in World War I continues to be perceived as a stain on his career, and was as such omitted from official histories which deal with the period. This, Boia notes, happened especially during the latter, nationalist stage of Romanian communism, when World War I was presented as a moment of anti-German "unanimity".[175] However, the period also brought occasional homages, such as a 1978 symposium at the National Museum of Art of Romania (introducing him as "one of our century's great art historians"),[176] as well as the publication of Tzigara's collected Scrieri despre arta românească ("Writings on Romanian Art", 1987).[177] The first installment of Tzigara-Samurcaș's memoirs was first published in 1999, ten years after the Revolution, by Grai și Suflet imprint.[5][178] Later volumes saw print with Editura Meridiane.[105] These works have raised interest for their historical and biographical content, but, Zigu Ornea contends, are largely without literary value.[5] Ornea also criticized the two editors, Ioan and Florica Șerb, for only including some citations from Tzigara's contemporaries as notes, instead of a more complete critical apparatus.[5] Editura Vitruviu also published another volume of Tzigara's memoirs, as Lupta vieții unui octogenar ("An Octogenarian's Lifelong Combat", 2007).[52][126]
A large part of his
Tzigara's son, Sandu Tzigara-Samurcaș (born on October 18, 1903), had trained as a jurist and worked at the Foundation as a legal adviser.[181] The husband of poet Adrienne Prunkul,[181][182] Sandu was especially known for his 1943 poetry volume Culesul de apoi ("The Latter-day Reaping").[183] He published a number of volumes in either Romanian or French, appearing into the 1970s.[181] His Bucharest salon braved communist censorship and, in the 1950s, hosted poets such as Ion Barbu and Nichita Stănescu.[184] He had two sisters, of whom Ana had become, in 1935, the wife of folklorist Marcu Berza.[185] Settled with her husband in Italy until her death in 1967, she established her reputation as a post-Impressionist painter and, after the 1989 Revolution, had her retrospective exhibition at the Museum of the Romanian Peasant.[182][186] Maria, Tzigara's other daughter, was a violinist for the Romanian Film Orchestra, married into the Berindei family (and thus became related to historians Dan and Mihnea Berindei).[187] Sandu, who died on April 23, 1987,[188] was buried at Samurcășești Monastery in Ciorogârla as "the last of the Samurcaș family descendants".[189]
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r (in Romanian) "Între Orient și Occident – Arhiva de imagine Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Cultura, March 19, 2011
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x (in Romanian) Mihai Plămădeală, "Arhiva Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Observator Cultural, Issue 519, April 2010
- ^ a b c d e f g h George Vlad, "Panoramic. Urme memoriale din Bucureștiul de altădată. Casele lui Al. Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Revista Muzeelor și Monumentelor. Muzee, Issue 6/1976, p. 91
- ^ a b c Șerban Cioculescu, "Breviar. Ioan Massoff, Între viață și teatru", in România Literară, Issue 24/1985, p. 7
- ^ Z. Ornea, "Mărturisirile lui Tzigara-Samurcaș", in România Literară, Issue 3/2000
- ^ a b c d (in Romanian) Vasile Docea, "La curtea iubirilor reprimate", in Tribuna, Issue 41/2004, p. 12
- ^ Boia, p. 327; Nastasă (2010), p. 89
- ^ a b c d e Boia, p. 327
- ^ a b Hunor Boér, "Könyvtár a Székely Nemzeti Múzeumban", in Művelődés, Issue 4/1998, p. 24
- ^ a b Nastasă (2010), p. 89
- ^ a b Rădulescu (2000), pp. 343–344
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 162; (2010), pp. 89, 331
- ^ Barbu Brezianu, "Salon parizian", in Ramuri, Vol. II, Issue 3, March 1965, p. 12
- ^ Rădulescu (2000), p. 350
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x (in Romanian) Dumitru Hîncu, "Al. Tzigara-Samurcaș – Din amintirile primului vorbitor la Radio românesc", in România Literară, Issue 42/2007
- ^ Nastasă (2010), p. 90
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Alexandru Barnea, "Moartea lui Carol I", in Ziarul Financiar, October 20, 2006
- ^ Nastasă (2010), pp. 89–90, 347
- ^ Rădulescu (2000), p. 344
- Dilema Veche, Issue 265, March 2009
- ^ Boia, p. 327. See also Luceafărul (1914), p. 265
- ^ a b c d Luceafărul (1914), p. 265
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 372
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), pp. 265–266; Boia, p. 327
- ^ Ciupală, p. 98
- ^ Nastasă (2007), pp. 162–163. See also Filitti, p. 625
- Dilema Veche, Issue 216, April 2008
- ^ a b Vlasiu, pp. 51–52
- ^ Vlasiu, passim
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 53–54, 109; (2007), pp. 162–163; (2010), pp. 90, 168, 347
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 54, 71; (2010), pp. 90, 168, 331
- ^ Nastasă (2010), pp. 90, 111, 346-347
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 151–152; (2007), pp. 173–174
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 151–152
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 39, 71
- ^ Nastasă (2003), p. 71; (2007), p. 323; (2010), p. 168
- ^ Nastasă (2007), pp. 321–323
- ^ a b Ornea (1998), p. 122
- ^ Mihu Dragomir, D. Manoileanu, "Inceputurile presei sportive", in Sportul Popular, February 25, 1956, p. 3
- ^ Nicolae Rauș, "Șt. O. Iosif bibliotecar", in Luceafărul, Vol. VI, Issue 11, May 1963, p. 4
- ^ (in Romanian) "Cărți, reviste, ziare", in Răvașul, Issues 21-22/1907, p. 382 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ OCLC 7431692
- ^ Șotropa, p. 28
- ^ Longuet, p. 144; Vlasiu, p. 51
- ^ a b c Longuet, p. 144
- ^ a b c d Ioana Popescu, "A Fragile Collection - The Memory of Glass Plates", in the Romanian Cultural Institute's Plural Magazine, Issue 21/2004
- ^ (in Romanian) Adina Dinițoiu, "'Vila cu clopoței are noi prieteni' ", in Observator Cultural, Issue 319, May 2006
- ^ a b c Narcis Dorin Ion, "Urban Memory: Museums of the Romanian Capital", in the Romanian Cultural Institute's Plural Magazine, Issue 32/2008
- ^ Tăslăuanu, p. 60. On the other proposed names, see Vlasiu, p. 51
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k (in Romanian) Alexandru Barnea, "Meteorologie și etnografie în București, acum 99 de ani", in Ziarul Financiar, October 6, 2006
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Luceafărul (1914), p. 266
- ^ a b c d e f g (in Romanian) Mihai Sorin Rădulescu, "Skansen și muzeele etnografice din București", in România Literară, Issue 36/2009
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Miron Manega, "Etnografia românească în epoca de piață", in Săptămâna Financiară, April 28, 2006
- ^ Georgeta Stoica, ["A Landmark on the European Map: the Dimitrie Gusti National Village Museum", in the Romanian Cultural Institute's Plural Magazine, Issue 24/2004
- ^ Gheorghe Nichifor, "Alexandru Ștefulescu – istoricul (II)", in Litua. Studii și Cercetări, Vol. XI, 2006, p. 240
- ^ Ioan Opriș, "Note și discuții. Legăturile dintre doi istorici transilvăneni: Constantin Moisil și Iulian Marțian", in Acta Musei Napocensis, Vols. XXIV–XXV, 1987–1988, p. 749
- ^ Tăslăuanu, pp. 60–61
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- ^ Vlasiu, p. 51
- ^ a b Nastasă (2007), p. 37
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- ^ Oprea, pp. 80, 85
- ^ Nastasă (2007), pp. 36–37, 323
- ^ Nastasă (2007), pp. 37, 310–311
- ^ Boia, pp. 108, 327, 353; Nastasă (2007), p. 36
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), pp. 266, 268
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- ^ Juvara, pp. 78, 81
- ^ Juvara, pp. 78–79
- ^ Filitti, p. 625
- ^ a b Nastasă (2007), pp. 102–103; (2010), p. 230
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 525
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 134
- ^ Longuet, pp. 144, 146
- ^ Dilema Veche, Issue 227, June 2008
- ^ a b Nastasă (2007), p. 91
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), passim
- ^ "Képzőművészet. Pusztuló műemlékek", in Az Ujság, July 23, 1913, p. 15
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), pp. 266–267
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), pp. 267–268
- ^ Luceafărul (1914), pp. 267, 268
- ^ a b Luceafărul (1914), p. 268
- ^ "Muzeul Militar Național", in Ilustrațiunea Română, Vol. III, Issue 19, May 1931, p. 2; Dinulescu, p. 96
- ^ Ciupală, p. 100
- ^ Șotropa, p. 21
- ^ a b Boia, p. 108
- ^ Boia, p. 104
- ^ a b "A Székely Nemzeti Múzeum vendége", in Keleti Ujság, November 20, 1936, p. 2
- ^ Boia, p. 327; Ornea (1998), pp. 390–393
- ^ Ornea (1998), p. 391
- ^ Ornea (1998), p. 393
- ^ Ion S. Floru, "Întâlniri cu Titu Maiorescu", in Magazin Istoric, December 1995, p. 51
- ^ Boia, p. 166
- ^ Boia, p. 350
- ^ a b c d e f g h Boia, p. 328
- ^ Boia, pp. 175–176, 328
- ^ Boia, pp. 176, 328
- ^ Boia, p. 203
- ^ Boia, pp. 203–204
- ^ a b c Tudor Teodorescu-Braniște, "In bazarul naționalismului integral... Odată cu tifosul exantematic a apărut și d. Tzigara-Samurcaș. Lipsește numai ocupațiunea germană!", in Adevărul, April 10, 1936, p. 3
- ^ Filitti, p. 627
- ^ V. Liveanu, "Note și însemnări. Cu privire la evenimentele din 26(13) decembrie 1918", in Studii. Revistă de Istorie, Issue 1/1958, p. 97
- ^ Boia, pp. 328, 353
- ^ Boia, p. 353
- ^ a b Boia, pp. 353–354
- ^ Boia, pp. 354, 355–356
- ^ Boia, pp. 354–355
- ^ Boia, p. 354
- ^ Boia, p. 355
- ^ Drăgan-George Basarabă, "Marea Unire și identitatea heraldică a Banatului", in Heraldica Moldaviae, Vol. IV, 2021, pp. 174–175
- ^ (in Romanian) G. T. Kirileanu, "1921. Culise regale (V)", in Ziarul Financiar, March 9, 2007
- ^ (in Romanian) S[evastian] V[oicu], "Mișcarea culturală. Reviste", in Transilvania, Issue 2/1929, p. 158 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ Pușcariu, p. 443
- ^ (in Romanian) "Raportul general. Muzee", in Transilvania, Issues 10-11/1924, pp. 387–388 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ Nastasă (2010), p. 244
- ^ Nastasă (2010), p. 390
- ^ Rados, pp. 115–116
- ^ a b Boia, p. 356
- ^ Pușcariu, p. 721
- ^ Boia, p. 356; Nastasă (2007), p. 297
- ^ (in Romanian) "Cronică măruntă", in Societatea de Mâine, Issue 3/1927, p. 33 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ (in Romanian) Ana Zidărescu, "Miss România are 80 de ani", in Evenimentul Zilei, February 29, 2009
- ^ Dinulescu, p. 97
- ^ "Cum face țara de râs în străinătate Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Viitorul, December 17, 1929, p. 6
- ^ "György József a mezőgazdasági kamarák csődjéről mondott beszédet a kamarában. A magyar gazdát kirekesztik a kamarákból. — A megyei kamarák feleslegesek, csak a tartományinak volna létjogosultsága, in Keleti Ujság, June 18, 1930, p. 2
- ^ a b Nastasă (2010), p. 371
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 524
- ^ (in Romanian) Grigore Bugarin, "Stilul clădirilor publice", in Societatea de Mâine, Issue 3/1939, p. 103 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ISBN 0-8229-4172-4
- ^ H. Sanielevici, "Supraviețuiri din mysterele dionysiace la ereticii din Basarabia", in Viața Românească, Issues 11-12/1930, pp. 116–118
- ISBN 978-606-543-631-2
- ^ (in Romanian) Ioan Stanomir, "Imagini și identitate națională: piese pentru dosarul unei dezbateri", in Revista 22, Issue 816, October 2005
- ^ Clark, p. 262
- ^ Clark, p. 310
- Dilema Veche, Issue 344, September 2010. For the full context of Vaux de Foletier's visit, see "Impresiile unui oaspete francez (I)", in Dilema Veche, Issue 343, September 2010
- ^ a b c (in Romanian) Alexandru Florescu, "Istorie și istorii: o biografie a regelui Ferdinand", in Convorbiri Literare, January 2005
- ^ a b c d Longuet, p. 146
- ISBN 0-520-01816-8
- ^ Călinescu, p. 996
- ^ Nastasă (2010), pp. 442–443
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- ^ Șerban Cioculescu, "Breviar. Despre Livia Maiorescu-Dymsza", in România Literară, Issue 47/1969, p. 5
- ^ (in Romanian) "Adevăruri de altădată: Reacție la o critică", in Adevărul, April 13, 2010
- ^ Rados, p. 117
- ^ Alexandru Rosetti, "Din Cartea Albă. Argheziana IV", in Luceafărul, Vol. X, Issue 38, September 1967, p. 3
- ^ Boia, p. 356. See also Nastasă (2007), p. 510
- ^ a b Nastasă (2010), p. 409
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 88
- ^ (in Romanian) Cassian Maria Spiridon, "Eminescu la 1939", in Convorbiri Literare, January 2004
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- ^ Aurelia Diaconescu, "Prasnelele – podoabe ale costumului popular barbatesc din zona Calimanilor, existente în colecțiile etnografice mureșene", in Marisia – Anuarul Muzeului Județean Mureș, Vol. XXX, 2013, p. 61
- Dilema, Issue 347, October 1999
- ISBN 3-525-35181-X
- ^ (in Romanian) "Cronici. Idei, oameni, fapte. În cinstea d-lui profesor Ernst Gamillscheg", in Gândirea, Issue 9/1941, p. 500 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ (in Romanian) Edward Pastia, "România nu are bani nici măcar să scrie istoria", in Săptămâna Financiară, August 17, 2007
- ^ (in Romanian) Cristina Diac, "Comunism - Artiști și ziariști în febra epurărilor", in Jurnalul Național, April 12, 2006
- ^ Cornel Crăciun, "Arta plastică românească în anul 1944", in Revista Istorică, Vol. V, Issues 9–10, September–October 1994, p. 944
- ^ Ion Călugăru, "Despre o revistă și un personagiu de cultură", in Scînteia, November 14, 1944, p. 2
- ^ "O nouă listă de miniștri, subsecretari de stat și secretari generali nedemni de a fi alegători sau aleși. Fondatorii asociaței româno–germane", in Adevărul, July 20, 1946, p. 3
- ^ "Rechizitoriul contra prof. Al. Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Adevărul, August 21, 1946, p. 3
- ^ "Ultima oră. Știri diverse", in Adevărul, December 11, 1946, p. 4
- ^ (in Romanian) Gheorghe Grigurcu, "Destinul unui rezistent: Pavel Chihaia", in România Literară, Issue 41/2001
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 511
- ^ Iordan Datcu, "Valori locale, valori naționale. Un memorialist – Constantin Beldie", in Argeș, Issue 9/1987, p. 4
- ^ Nastasă (2010), p. 470
- ^ Nastasă (2007), p. 36
- ^ Clark, p. 301
- ^ (in Romanian) Iordan Datcu, "Profesorul Alexandru Dima", in România Literară, Issue 39/2005
- ISBN 2-87775-340-9
- ^ Longuet, pp. 146–147
- ^ Longuet, p. 147
- ^ (in Romanian) Radu Bercea, Ioana Popescu, "Scandal la MȚR", in Revista 22, Issue 754, August 2004; Vintilă Mihăilescu, Maria Bercea, "MȚR e mai mult decât un muzeu: e o instituție culturală", in Revista 22, Issue 827, January 2006. See also Longuet, pp. 146sqq
- ^ Boia, pp. 16–17
- ^ "Cronică, recenzii, informații. Manifestări muzeale dedicate Zilei internaționale a muzeelor", in Revista Muzeelor și Monumentelor. Muzee, Issue 4/1978, p. 95
- ^ Șotropa, p. 28; Vlasiu, p. 54
- ^ Boia, p. 328; Ciupală, pp. 137, 139, 140; Nastasă (2007), pp. 37, 91, 103; (2010), p. 230
- ^ (in Romanian) Speranța Rădulescu, "Să poftească tot poporul", in Observator Cultural, Issue 179, April July 2003
- ^ List of Euroart approved projects. Window II – Market orientated cultural activities, at the Romanian Culture 2000 site; retrieved March 19, 2011
- ^ a b c C. D. Zeletin, "Scriitori români de expresie franceză. Sandu Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Ateneu, Vol. 29, Issue 5, May 1991, p. 10
- ^ a b Nastasă (2010), p. 327
- ^ Călinescu, p. 1032
- ^ (in Romanian) Alexandru Condeescu, "Nichita Stănescu – Debutul poetic", in România Literară, Issue 14/2005
- ^ Nastasă (2003), pp. 51, 109; (2007), pp. 162–163; (2010), pp. 90–91, 244, 331, 390
- ^ "Expoziție feminină la Muzeul Țăranului Român", in Cronica Română, February 19, 2009; Florian Băiculescu, "La zi", in Observator Cultural, Issue 463, February 2009
- ^ Nastasă (2010), pp. 91, 327, 390
- ^ "445 de ani de la nașterea lui William Shakespeare", in Flacăra Iașului, April 23, 2009, p. 1
- ^ Irina Stoica, "Amprente ale spiritualității. Mănăstirea Samurcășești", in Magazin, Issue 45/2005, p. 11
References
- (in French) Revue Roumaine d'Histoire de l'Art. Série Beaux-arts, Vol. XLIV, 2007. See:
- Adriana Șotropa, "Entre l'héritage rodinien et la Sécession munichoise: tendances symbolistes dans la sculpture roumaine au début du XXe siècle", pp. 21–28.
- Ioana Vlasiu, "Réflexions sur les arts décoratifs et la décoration en Roumanie au début du XXe siècle", pp. 49–54.
- Ruxandra Juvara, "La société Tinerimea artistică. Sa contribution au développement de l'art roumain dans la première moitié du XXe siècle", pp. 73–81.
- (in Romanian) "Al. Tzigara-Samurcaș", in Luceafărul, Issue 9/1914, pp. 265–268 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library).
- ISBN 978-973-50-2635-6
- George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1986.
- Alin Ciupală, Femeia în societatea românească a secolului al XIX-lea. Bucharest: ISBN 973-33-0481-6
- ISBN 0-405-02741-9
- Constanțiu Dinulescu, "Generalul Radu R. Rosetti — organizator al Muzeului Militar Național", in Oltenia. Studii și Comunicări. Arheologie–Istorie, Vol. XIV, 2002–2003, pp. 96–101.
- Ioan C. Filitti, "Memorii, Corespondență, Însemnări. Jurnal (VII)", in Revista Istorică, Vol. IV, Issues 5–6, May–June 1993, pp. 621–629.
- Isabelle Longuet, "Le musée du Paysan roumain. Présentation d'une culture ou proposition de société?", in Terrain, Issue 21, October 1993, pp. 143–149.
- Lucian Nastasă,
- (in Romanian) Intelectualii și promovarea socială (pentru o morfologie a câmpului universitar). Cluj-Napoca: Editura Nereamia Napocae, 2003.
- (in Romanian) "Suveranii" universităților românești. Mecanisme de selecție și promovare a elitei intelectuale, Vol. I. Cluj-Napoca: ISBN 978-973-726-278-3
- (in Romanian) Intimitatea amfiteatrelor. Ipostaze din viața privată a universitarilor "literari" (1864-1948). Cluj-Napoca: Editura Limes, 2010. ISBN 978-973-726-469-5
- Petre Oprea, "Pictorul Jean Steriadi, muzeograf", in Revista Muzeelor și Monumentelor. Muzee, Issues 9–10/1979, pp. 80–85.
- ISBN 973-21-0561-5
- Sextil Pușcariu, Memorii. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1978.
- Leonidas Rados, "Personalități ale Universității din Iași. 'Supliciile' profesorului Orest Tafrali la Universitatea din Iași: o poveste despre vanitate și incompatibilități culturale", in Archiva Moldaviæ, Vol. IX, 2017, pp. 97–120.
- (in French) Mihai Sorin Rădulescu, "Sur l'aristocratie roumaine de l'entre-deux-guerres", in The New Europe College Yearbook 1996-1997, pp. 339–365. ISBN 973-98624-4-6
- Octavian Tăslăuanu, "Muzeul 'Asociațiunii' ", in Transilvania, Issue 2/1909, pp. 59–69 (digitized by the Transsylvanica Online Library).
External links
- Museum of the Romanian Peasant (official page)
- Alexandru-Tzigara Samurcaș Archive, at the Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urbanism