Anglo-Frisian languages
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Anglo-Frisian | |
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Geographic distribution | Originally Friesland to Jutland; today worldwide |
Linguistic classification | Indo-European |
Subdivisions |
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Glottolog | angl1264 |
Approximate present day distribution of the Anglo-Frisian languages in Europe.
Anglic: English |
The Anglo-Frisian languages are the Anglic (
The Anglo-Frisian languages are distinct from other West Germanic languages due to several
- English cheese, Scots cheese and West Frisian tsiis, but Dutch kaas, Low German Kees, and German Käse
- English church, and West Frisian tsjerke, but Dutch kerk, Low German Kerk, Kark, and German Kirche, though Scots kirk
- English sheep, Scots sheep and West Frisian skiep, but Dutch schaap (pl. schapen), Low German Schaap, German Schaf (pl. Schafe)
The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to the tree model. According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, like Old English and Old Frisian, and the third Ingvaeonic group at the time, the ancestor of Low German Old Saxon, were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian,[1] a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of an Ingvaeonic subfamily cannot be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on much more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider a Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are falsifiable.[1] Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the Frisian grouping are part of the scientific consensus. Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications.[1][2]
Geography isolated the settlers of Great Britain from Continental Europe, except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in more Old Norse and Norman language influences during the development of Modern English, whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southern Germanic populations, restricted to the continent.
Classification
The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is:
- Anglo-Frisian
- Anglic
- English
- Northumbrian and Cumbrian (see the article about the Humber-Lune Line)
- Scots
- Irish Anglo-Norman[3][4][5]
- Fingalian†
- Yola†
- English
- Frisian
- West Frisian
- Hindeloopen Frisian
- Schiermonnikoog Frisian
- Westlauwers–Terschellings
- East Frisian
- Saterland Frisian (last remaining dialect of East Frisian)
- North Frisian
- West Frisian
- Anglic
Anglic languages
Anglic,
English-based creole languages are not generally included, as mainly only their lexicon and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes from Modern and Early Modern English.
Proto-English
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Northumbrian Old English | Mercian Old English
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Kentish Old English | West Saxon Old English
| ||||
Northern Early Middle English | Midland Early Middle English | Southeastern Early Middle English | Southern Early Middle English | Southwestern Early Middle English | |||
Early Scots | Northern Middle English | Midland Middle English | Southeastern Middle English | Southern Middle English | Southwestern Middle English | ||
Middle Scots | Northern Early Modern English | Midland Early Modern English | Metropolitan Early Modern English | Southern Early Modern English | Southwestern Early Modern English | Fingallian | Yola |
Modern Scots | Modern English | extinct | extinct |
Frisian languages
The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000
There are no known East Frisian dialects, but there are three dialects of West Frisian and ten of North Frisian.
- West Frisian dialects:[10]
- Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
- South or Southwest Frisian (Súdhoeksk)
- Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
- North Frisian dialects:[11]
- Insular dialects
- Sylt Frisian(Söl'ring)
- Föhr-Amrum Frisian (Fering, Öömrang)
- Heligolandic Frisian(Halunder)
- Mainland dialects
- Wiedingharde Frisian (Wiringhiirder)
- Bökingharde Frisian(Mooringer)
- Karrharde Frisian (Karrharder)
- Goesharde Frisian (Gooshiirder)
- Northern Goesharde Frisian (incl. Hooringer Fräisch & Hoolmer Freesch)
- Central Goesharde Frisian
- Southern Goesharde Frisian (extinct since early 1980s)
- Halligen Frisian (Halifreesk)
- Insular dialects
Anglo-Frisian developments
The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order.[13] For additional detail, see Phonological history of Old English. That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages is considered disproved by some scholars.[1]
- Backing and nasalization of West Germanic a and ā before a nasal consonant
- Loss of n before a spirant, resulting in lengthening and nasalization of preceding vowel
- Single form for present and preterite plurals
- A-fronting: West Germanic a, ā > æ, ǣ, even in the diphthongs ai and au (see Anglo-Frisian brightening)
- palatalization of Proto-Germanic *k and *g before front vowels (but not phonemicization of palatals)
- A-restoration: æ, ǣ > a, ā under the influence of neighboring consonants
- Second fronting: OE dialects (except West Saxon) and Frisian ǣ > ē
- A-restoration: a restored before a back vowel in the following syllable (later in the Southumbriandialects); Frisian æu > au > Old Frisian ā/a
- OE breaking; in West Saxon palatal diphthongization follows
- i-mutation followed by syncope; Old Frisian breaking follows
- Phonemicization of palatals and assibilation, followed by second fronting in parts of West Mercia
- Smoothing and back mutation
Comparisons
Numbers in Anglo-Frisian languages
These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch, West-Flemish and German included for comparison:
Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
English | one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | eight | nine | ten | eleven | twelve |
West Riding Yorkshire | one | two | three | fower | five | six | seven | eight | nine | ten | (e)leven | twelve |
Scots[note 1] | ane ae* een |
twa | trey three |
fower | five | seks sax |
seiven | aicht | nine | ten | eleiven | twaal |
Yola | oan | twye | dhree | vour | veeve | zeese | zeven | ayght | neen | dhen | ellven | twalve |
West Frisian | ien | twa | trije | fjouwer | fiif | seis | sân | acht | njoggen | tsien | alve | tolve |
West-Flemish | jin | twi | drieje | viere | vuvve | zesse | zeevne | achte | neegn | tiene | elve | twolve |
Saterland Frisian | aan (m.) een (f., n.) |
twäin (m.) two (f., n.) |
träi (m.) trjo (f., n.) |
fjauer | fieuw | säks | sogen | oachte | njúgen | tjoon | alven | twelig |
North Frisian (Mooring dialect) | iinj ån |
tou tuu |
trii tra |
fjouer | fiiw | seeks | soowen | oocht | nüügen | tiin | alwen | tweelwen |
Dutch | een | twee | drie | vier | vijf | zes | zeven | acht | negen | tien | elf | twaalf |
High German | eins | zwei | drei | vier | fünf | sechs | sieben | acht | neun | zehn | elf | zwölf |
* Ae [eː], [jeː] is an adjectival form used before nouns.[14]
Words in English, West Riding Yorkshire, Scots, Yola, West Frisian, Dutch, German and West-Flemish
English | West Riding Yorkshire | Scots | Yola | West Frisian | Dutch | German | West-Flemish |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
day | day | day | dei | dei | dag | Tag | dah |
world | warld | warld | eord | wrâld | wereld | Welt | wèreld |
rain | rain | rain | rhyne | rein | regen | Regen | rinne |
blood | blooid | bluid | blooed | bloed | bloed | Blut | bloed |
alone | aloan | alane | alane | allinne | alleen | allein | oaljinne |
stone | stoan | stane | sthoan | stien | steen | Stein | stjin |
snow | snaw | snaw | sneow | snie | sneeuw | Schnee | snji(w) |
summer | summer | simmer | zimmer | simmer | zomer | Sommer | zomer |
way | way | wey | wye | wei | weg | Weg | weh |
almighty | almeety | awmichtie | aulmichty | almachtich | almachtig | allmächtig | oalmahtih |
ship | ship | ship | zhip | skip | schip | Schiff | skip/sjgip |
nail | nail | nail | niel | neil | nagel | Nagel | noagle |
old | owd | auld | yola | âld | oud | alt | oed |
butter | butter | butter | buther | bûter | boter | Butter | beuter |
cheese | cheese | cheese | cheese | tsiis | kaas | Käse | koas |
apple | apple | aiple | appel | apel | appel | Apfel | apple |
church | church (older kurk) | kirk | chourche | tsjerke | kerk | Kirche | kerke |
son | son | son | zon | soan | zoon | Sohn | zeune |
door | door | door | dher | doar | deur | Tür | deure |
good | gooid | guid | gooude | goed | goed | gut | hoed |
fork | fork | fork | vork | foarke | vork | Gabel Forke (dated) |
vork |
sib | sib (obsolete) | sib | meany / sibbe (dated) | sibbe | sibbe (dated) | Sippe | |
together | together | taegither | agyther | tegearre | samen tegader |
zusammen | tegoare |
morn(ing) | morn(in) | morn(in) | arich | moarn | morgen | Morgen | morhn |
until, till | whol | until, till | del | oant | tot | bis | tot |
where | wheer | whauror whare | fidie | wêr | waar | wo | woa(r)(e) |
key | key | key[note 2] | kei / kie | kaai | sleutel | Schlüssel | sleutle |
have been (was) | wor | wis | was | ha west | ben geweest | bin gewesen | zy(n)/è gewist |
two sheep | two sheep | twa sheep | twye zheep | twa skiep | twee schapen | zwei Schafe | twi skoapn |
have | have/heve/ha | hae | ha | hawwe | hebben | haben | èn |
us | uz | us | ouse | ús | ons | uns | oes |
horse | hoss | horse | caule | hynder hoars (rare) |
paard ros (dated) |
Pferd Ross (dated) |
pèrd |
bread | breead | breid | breed | brea | brood | Brot | brwot |
hair | hair | hair | haar | hier | haar | Haar | oar |
heart | heart | hert | hearth | hert | hart | Herz | èrte |
beard | beard | beard | bearde | burd | baard | Bart | board |
moon | mooin | muin | mond | moanne | maan | Mond | moane |
mouth | maath, gob | mooth | meouth | mûn | mond | Mund | moend |
ear | ear, lug | ear, lug (colloquial) | lug | ear | oor | Ohr | wore/ôre |
green | green | green | green | grien | groen | grün | groene |
red | red | reid | reed | read | rood | rot | rwod/rôd |
sweet | sweet | sweet | sweet | swiet | zoet | süß | zoet |
through | through/thrugh | throu[note 3] | draugh | troch | door | durch | deur |
wet | weet | weet | weate | wiet | nat | nass | nat |
eye | ee | ee | ei / iee | each | oog | Auge | wooge/ôoge |
dream | dreeam | dream | dreem | dream | droom | Traum | droom |
mouse | maase | moose | meouse | mûs | muis | Maus | muzze |
house | haase | hoose | heouse | hûs | huis | Haus | hus |
it goes on | it goes/goas on | it gaes/gangs on | it goath an | it giet oan | het gaat door | es geht weiter/los | tgoa deure |
good day | gooid day | guid day | gooude dei | goeie (dei) | goedendag | guten Tag | goein dah |
Alternative grouping
However, since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German and especially in its older language stages, there is a tendency to prefere the Ingvaeonic classification instead of the Anglo-Frisian one, which also takes Low German into account. Because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence early on and therefore lost many Ingveonic features that were to be found much more extensively in earlier language states.[16]
It is not thought of as a monolithic proto-language, but rather as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.[17]
The grouping was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by the German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984), as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams that had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group.[18]
See also
- High German languages
- Low Franconian languages
Notes
- ^ Depending on dialect 1. [en], [jɪn], [in], [wan], [*eː], [jeː] 2. [twɑː], [twɔː], [tweː], [twaː] 3. [θrəi], [θriː], [triː] 4. [ˈfʌu(ə)r], [fuwr] 5. [faiːv], [fɛv] 6. [saks] 7. [ˈsiːvən], [ˈseːvən], [ˈsəivən] 8. [ext], [ɛçt] 9. [nəin], [nin] 10. [tɛn].
- ^ Depending on dialect [kiː] or [kəi].
- ^ Depending on dialect [θruː] or [θrʌu].
- ^ Also known as Anglo-Saxon.
References
- ^ ]
- OCLC 1013723499.
- ISBN 90-272-4895-8.
- ISBN 9027237530.
- from the original on 2023-07-17. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Anglic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-1234-5., p. 336
- ^ J. Derrick McClure Scots its range of Uses in A. J. Aitken, Tom McArthur, Languages of Scotland, W. and R. Chambers, 1979. p.27
- ^ Thomas Burns McArthur, The English Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p.203
- ^ a b "Frisian | Ethnologue Free".
- ^ a b "Frisian, Northern | Ethnologue Free".
- ^ "Saterfriesisch | Ethnologue Free".
- ^ Fulk, Robert D. (1998). "The Chronology of Anglo-Frisian Sound Changes". In Bremmer Jr., Rolf H.; Johnston, Thomas S.B.; Vries, Oebele (eds.). Approaches to Old Frisian Philology. Amsterdam: Rodopoi. p. 185.
- ^ Grant, William; Dixon, James Main (1921). Manual of Modern Scots. Cambridge: University Press. p. 105.
- ^ Some include West Flemish. Cf. Bremmer (2009:22).
- ISBN 978-3-484-73048-9.
- ^ For a full discussion of the areal changes involved and their relative chronologies, see Voyles (1992).
- ^ "Friedrich Maurer (Lehrstuhl für Germanische Philologie – Linguistik)". Germanistik.uni-freiburg.de. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
Further reading
- Maurer, Friedrich (1942). Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde (in German). Strasbourg: Hünenburg.
- ISBN 978-3-9812110-7-8.
- ISBN 978-0199207848.