Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)
Ashtanga yoga (
(absorption).The eight limbs form a sequence from the outer to the inner. The posture, asana, must be steady and comfortable for a long time, in order for the yogi to practice the limbs from pranayama until samadhi. The main aim is kaivalya, discernment of Puruṣa, the witness-conscious, as separate from Prakṛti, the cognitive apparatus, and disentanglement of Puruṣa from its muddled defilements.
Definition of yoga
Patanjali begins his treatise by stating the purpose of his book in the first sutra, followed by defining the word "yoga" in his second sutra of Book 1:[2]
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ॥२॥
yogaś-citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ— Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".[3] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining (nirodhah) the mind-stuff (citta) from taking various forms (vrittis)."[4] When the mind is stilled, the seer or real Self is revealed:
1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).[5]
Eight limbs
Patanjali set out his definition of yoga in the Yoga Sutras as having eight limbs (अष्टाङ्ग aṣṭ āṅga, "eight limbs") as follows:
The eight limbs of yoga are yama (abstinences), niyama (observances), asana (yoga postures), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (absorption)."[6]
The eightfold path of Patanjali's yoga consists of a set of prescriptions for a morally disciplined and purposeful life, of which asana (yoga posture) form only one limb.[7]
1. Yamas
Yamas are ethical rules in Hinduism and can be thought of as moral imperatives (the "don'ts"). The five yamas listed by Patanjali in Yoga Sutra 2.30 are:[8]
- Ahimsa (अहिंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[9]
- Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood[9][10]
- Asteya (अस्तेय): non-stealing(चोरी नही करना है)[9]
- Brahmacharya (ब्रह्मचर्य): chastity,[10] marital fidelity or sexual restraint[11]
Patanjali, in Book 2, states how and why each of the above self-restraints helps in an individual's personal growth. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others (Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything.[12][13]
2. Niyamas
The second component of Patanjali's Yoga path is niyama, which includes virtuous habits and observances (the "dos").[14][15] Sadhana Pada Verse 32 lists the niyamas as:[16]
- Shaucha (शौच): purity, clearness of mind, speech and body[17]
- Santosha (संतोष): contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for self[18]
- Svadhyaya (स्वाध्याय): study of Vedas, study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speech and actions[20][23]
- Ishvarapranidhana (ईश्वरप्रणिधान): contemplation of the Ishvara (God/Supreme Being, Brahman, True Self, Unchanging Reality)[18][24]
As with the Yamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the Niyamas helps in personal growth. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are (Santosha) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasure ceases.[25]
3. Āsana
Patanjali begins discussion of Āsana (आसन, posture, seat) by defining it in verse 46 of Book 2, as follows,[2]
स्थिरसुखमासनम् ॥४६॥
The meditation posture should be steady and comfortable.[26][27]— Yoga Sutras II.46
Asana is a posture that one can hold for a period of time, staying relaxed, steady, comfortable and motionless. The Yoga Sutra does not list any specific asana.
The Bhasya commentary attached to the Sutras, now thought to be by Patanjali himself,
Over a thousand years later, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika mentions 84 [a] asanas taught by Shiva, stating four of these as most important: Siddhasana (accomplished), Padmasana (lotus), Simhasana (lion), and Bhadrasana (glorious), and describes the technique of these four and eleven other asanas.[33][34] In modern yoga, asanas are prominent and numerous, unlike in any earlier form of yoga.[35][36]
4. Prāņāyāma
Prāṇāyāma is the control of the breath, from the Sanskrit prāṇa (प्राण, breath)[37] and āyāma (आयाम, restraint).[38]
After a desired posture has been achieved, verses II.49 through II.51 recommend prāṇāyāma, the practice of consciously regulating the breath (inhalation, the full pause, exhalation, and the empty pause).[39] This is done in several ways, such as by inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, by slowing the inhalation and exhalation, or by consciously changing the timing and length of the breath (deep, short breathing).[40][41]
5. Pratyāhāra
Pratyāhāra is a combination of two Sanskrit words prati- (the prefix प्रति-, "against" or "contra") and āhāra (आहार, "bring near, fetch").[42]
Pratyahara is drawing within one's awareness. It is a process of retracting the sensory experience from external objects. It is a step of self extraction and abstraction. Pratyahara is not consciously closing one's eyes to the sensory world; it is consciously closing one's mind processes to the sensory world. Pratyahara empowers one to stop being controlled by the external world, fetch one's attention to seek self-knowledge and experience the freedom innate in one's inner world.[43][44]
Pratyahara marks the transition of yoga experience from the first four limbs of Patanjali's Ashtanga scheme that perfect external forms, to the last three limbs that perfect the yogin's inner state: moving from outside to inside, from the outer sphere of the body to the inner sphere of the spirit.[45]
6. Dhāraṇā
Dharana (Sanskrit: धारणा) means concentration, introspective focus and one-pointedness of mind. The root of the word is dhṛ (धृ), meaning "to hold, maintain, keep".[46]
Dharana, as the sixth limb of yoga, is holding one's mind onto a particular inner state, subject or topic of one's mind.[47] The mind is fixed on a mantra, or one's breath/navel/tip of tongue/any place, or an object one wants to observe, or a concept/idea in one's mind.[48][49] Fixing the mind means one-pointed focus, without drifting of mind, and without jumping from one topic to another.[48]
7. Dhyāna
Dhyana (Sanskrit: ध्यान) literally means "contemplation, reflection" and "profound, abstract meditation".[50]
Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever Dharana has focused on. If in the sixth limb of yoga one focused on a personal deity, Dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is non-judgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object.[51] If the focus was on a concept/idea, Dhyana is contemplating that concept/idea in all its aspects, forms and consequences. Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought, current of cognition, flow of awareness.[49]
Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana, one leads to other. Dharana is a state of mind, Dhyana the process of mind. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes actively engaged with its focus. Patanjali defines contemplation (Dhyana) as the mind process, where the mind is fixed on something, and then there is "a course of uniform modification of knowledge".[52] Adi Shankara, in his commentary on Yoga Sutras, distinguishes Dhyana from Dharana, by explaining Dhyana as the yoga state when there is only the "stream of continuous thought about the object, uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object"; Dharana, states Shankara, is focussed on one object, but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on the morning Sun may be aware of its brilliance, color and orbit; the yogin in dhyana state contemplates on Sun's orbit alone for example, without being interrupted by its color, brilliance or other related ideas.[53]
8. Samādhi
Samadhi (Sanskrit: समाधि) literally means "putting together, joining, combining with, union, harmonious whole, trance".[54][55] In samadhi, when meditating on an object, only the object of awareness is present,[56] and the awareness that one is meditating disappears.[49][56][57] Samadhi is of two kinds,[58][59] Samprajnata Samadhi, with support of an object of meditation, and Asamprajnata Samadhi, without support of an object of meditation.[60]
Samprajnata Samadhi, also called
The first two associations, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of
- Savitarka, "deliberative" (YS 1.42):[65][e] The citta is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation,[60] an object with a manifest appearance that is perceptible to our senses,[68] such as a flame of a lamp, the tip of the nose, or the image of a deity.[citation needed] Conceptualization (vikalpa) still takes place, in the form of perception, the word and the knowledge of the object of meditation.[65] When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitarka samadhi (YS 1.43).[69][f]
- Savichara, "reflective":[68] the citta is concentrated upon a subtle object of meditation,[60][68] which is not perceptible to the senses, but arrived at through inference,[68] such as the senses, the process of cognition, the mind, the I-am-ness,[g] the chakras, the inner-breath (prana), the nadis, the intellect (buddhi).[68] The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti (YS 1.44).[68][h]
The last two associations, sananda samadhi and sasmita, are respectively a state of meditation, and an object of savichara samadhi:
According to Ian Whicher, the status of ananda and asmita in Patanjali's system is a matter of dispute.[70] According to Maehle, the first two constituents, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samapatti.[65] According to Feuerstein,
"Joy" and "I-am-ness" [...] must be regarded as accompanying phenomena of every cognitive [ecstasy]. The explanations of the classical commentators on this point appear to be foreign to Patanjali's hierarchy of [ecstatic] states, and it seems unlikely that ananda and asmita should constitute independent levels of samadhi.
— [70]
Ian Whicher disagrees with Feuerstein, seeing ananda and asmita as later stages of nirvicara-samapatti.
- Savitarka-samāpatti and Nirvitarka-samāpatti, both with gross objects as objects of support;
- Savicāra-samāpatti and Nirvicāra-samāpatti, both with subtle objects as objects of support;
- Sānanda-samāpatti and Nirānanda-samāpatti, both with the sense organs as objects of support
- Sāsmitā-samāpatti and Nirasmitā-samāpatti, both with the sense of "I-am-ness" as support.
Asamprajnata Samadhi, also called
Soteriological goal: Kaivalya
According to Bryant, the purpose of yoga is liberation from suffering, caused by entanglement with the world, by means of discriminative discernment between
The Samkhya school suggests that jnana (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha, Patanjali suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.
Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as samyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge.[49][75] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[76][77] Once a yogi reaches this state of samyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the redemptive goal of the yogi.[76]
See also
- Seven stages (Yogi) — the seven stages of progress in the Vyasa commentary on the Yoga Sutras
- Noble Eightfold Path
- Dhyana in Buddhism
Notes
- signs of the zodiac, while in numerology, 7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3+4)×(3×4).[32]
- ^ The seeds or samskaras are not destroyed.[61]
- ^ According to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism.[62] This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne, according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhana combine concentration with mindfulness.[63] According to Eddie Crangle, the first jhana resembles Patnajali's Samprajnata Samadhi, which both share the application of vitarka and vicara.[64]
- ^ Yoga Sutra 1.17: "Objective samadhi (samprajnata) is associated with deliberation, reflection, bliss, and I-am-ness (asmita).[66]
- ^ Yoga Sutra 1.42: "Deliberative (savitarka) samapatti is that samadhi in which words, objects, and knowledge are commingled through conceptualization."[65]
- ^ Yoga Sutra 1.43: "When memory is purified, the mind appears to be emptied of its own nature and only the object shines forth. This is superdeliberative (nirvitaka) samapatti."[69]
- ^ Following Yoga Sutra 1.17, meditation on the sense of "I-am-ness" is also grouped, in other descriptions, as "sasmita samapatti"
- ^ Yoga Sutra 1.44: "In this way, reflective (savichara) and super-reflective (nirvichara) samapatti, which are based on subtle objects, are also explained."[68]
- ^ See also Pīti
- Samskaras[59] According to Swami Sivananda, "All the seeds or impressions are burnt by the fire of knowledge [...] all the Samskaras and Vasanas which bring on rebirths are totally fried up. All Vrittis or mental modifications that arise form the mind-lake come under restraint. The five afflictions, viz., Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-dvesha (love and hatred) and Abhinivesha (clinging to life) are destroyed and the bonds of Karma are annihilated [...] It gives Moksha (deliverance form the wheel of births and deaths). With the advent of the knowledge of the Self, ignorance vanishes. With the disappearance of the root-cause, viz., ignorance, egoism, etc., also disappear."[59]
- ^ According to Jianxin Li, Asamprajnata Samadhi may be compared to the arupa jhanas of Buddhism, and to Nirodha-Samapatti.[62] Crangle also notes that sabija-asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas.[64] According to Crangle, the fourth arupa jhana is the stage of transition to Patanjali's "consciousness without seed".[72]
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- Translation 3: The Yogasutras of Patanjali Charles Johnston (Translator)
- ^ Taimni 1961, p. 12.
- ^ Vivekananda, p. 115.
- ^ Taimni 1961, p. 16-17.
- Yoga Sutras2.29.
- ^ Carrico, Mara (10 July 2017). "Get to Know the Eight Limbs of Yoga". Yoga Journal.
- ^ Āgāśe, K. S. (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p. 102.
- ^ ISBN 9780823931798, page 777
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- ISBN 978-1845116262, page 109; Quote: The fourth vow - brahmacarya - means for laypersons, marital fidelity and pre-marital celibacy; for ascetics, it means absolute celibacy; John Cort states, "Brahmacharya involves having sex only with one's spouse, as well as the avoidance of ardent gazing or lewd gestures (...) - Quoted by Long, ibid, page 101
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- ^ Y. Sawai (1987), "The Nature of Faith in the Śaṅkaran Vedānta Tradition", Numen, Vol. 34, Fasc. 1 (Jun., 1987), pages 18-44
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- ^ The Yoga Philosophy T. R. Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 84
- ^ The Yoga Philosophy T. R. Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 86
- ^ ISBN 978-0873957281, page 228 with footnotes
- ^ The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, page xii
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- ^ Maas, Philipp A. (2013). "A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy, in: Eli Franco (ed.), Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy". Pre-Print Version of the Article Published in: Eli Franco (Ed.), Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy. Publications of the de Nobili Research Library, 37. Vienna: Sammlung de Nobili. Vienna: Sammlung de Nobili, Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität Wien.
- ^ The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa G. N. Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, page 89
- ISBN 978-0-8348-4057-7., in her comprehensive Eighty-Four Asanas in Yoga, notes that the number 'signifies completeness, and in some cases, sacredness. ... John Campbell Oman, in The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India (1905) ... seven ... classical planets in Indian astrology ... and twelve, the number of signs of the zodiac. ... Matthew Kapstein gives .. a numerological point of view ... 3+4=7 ... 3x4=12 ...
this number has symbolic significance. S. Dasgupta, in Obscure Religious Cults (1946), cites numerous instances of variations on eighty-four in Indian literature that stress its 'purely mystical nature'; ... Gudrun Bühnemann
- ^ Hatha Yoga Pradipika P Sinh (Translator), pages 33-35
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- ^ The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 88-91
- ^ The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 90-91
- ^ AhAra Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
- ISBN 978-8170237150, pages 29-30
- ISBN 978-1930485204, pages 136-144
- ISBN 978-8171569649, pages 342-345
- ^ dhR, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- ISBN 9780915801695, page 149
- ^ ISBN 978-1930485204, pages 145-151
- ^ a b c d The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa - Book 3 GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 94-95
- ^ dhyAna, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- ISBN 978-1930485204, pages 151-159
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- ^ a b Āraṇya 1983, p. 252-253.
- ^ Desmarais 2008, p. 175-176.
- ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 377.
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- ^ a b Jianxin Li n.d.
- ^ Wynne 2007, p. 106; 140, note 58.
- ^ a b Crangle 1984, p. 191.
- ^ a b c d e f Maehle 2007, p. 177.
- ^ Maehle 2007, p. 156.
- ^ a b c d Whicher 1998, p. 254.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Maehle 2007, p. 179.
- ^ a b Maehle 2007, p. 178.
- ^ a b c Whicher 1998, p. 253.
- ^ Whicher 1998, p. 253-254.
- ^ Crangle 1984, p. 194.
- ^ a b c d e Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP
- ^ Bryant 2009, p. 10.
- ISBN 978-1577316060, pages 237-238
- ^ a b The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa - Book 3 GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 108-126
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- Āraṇya, Hariharānanda (1983), Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0873957281
- ISBN 978-0865477360
- Crangle, Eddie (1984), "A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist Techniques of Attaining Samādhi" (PDF), in Hutch, R. A.; Fenner, P. G. (eds.), Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree: Australian Studies in Consciousness, University Press of America, archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-09-01, retrieved 2021-08-04
- Desmarais, Michele Marie (2008), Changing Minds : Mind, Consciousness And Identity In Patanjali'S Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120833364
- Jianxin Li (n.d.), A Comparative Study between Yoga and Indian Buddhism, asianscholarship.org, archived from the original on 4 March 2016
- Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing
- Maehle, Gregor (2007), Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy, New World Library
- Taimni, I.K. (1961), The Science of Yoga: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (PDF)
- Whicher, Ian (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press
- Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (PDF), Routledge
Further reading
- TR Tatya (1885), The Yoga Philosophy, with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives;
- GN Jha (1907), The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa with notes; Harvard University Archives;
- Charles Johnston (1912), The Yogasutras of Patanjali
- I.K. Taimni (1961), The Science of Yoga: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Chip Hartranft (2003), The Yoga-Sûtra of Patañjali. Sanskrit-English Translation & Glossary (86 pages)