Hatha yoga

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Mudras (manipulations of vital energy, here Viparita Karani), Pranayama (breath control, here Anuloma Viloma).[1]
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
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Hatha yoga (

Pali canon.[5] The oldest dated text so far found to describe hatha yoga, the 11th-century Amṛtasiddhi, comes from a tantric Buddhist milieu.[6] The oldest texts to use the terminology of hatha are also Vajrayana Buddhist.[4]
Hindu hatha yoga texts appear from the 11th century onward.

Some of the early hatha yoga texts (11th-13th c.) describe methods to raise and conserve bindu (vital force, that is,

mudras (yogic seals, not to be confused with hand mudras, which are gestures).[3]

Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nath

chakras, called Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the hatha yoga mudrās.[8] Later Nāth as well as Śākta texts adopt the practices of hatha yoga mudras into a Saiva system, melding them with Layayoga methods, without mentioning bindu.[8] These later texts promote a universalist yoga, available to all, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."[8]

In the 20th century, a development of hatha yoga focusing particularly on

physical exercise. This modern form of yoga
is now widely known simply as "yoga".

Origins

Earliest textual references

sushumna

According to the Indologist

MN 36), the Buddha mentions how physical practices such as various meditations on holding one's breath did not help him "attain to greater excellence in noble knowledge and insight which transcends the human condition." After trying these, he then sought another path to enlightenment.[9] The term haṭha yoga was first used in the c. 3rd century Bodhisattvabhūmi, the phrase na haṭhayogena seemingly meaning only that the bodhisattva would get his qualities "not by force".[10]

Transition from tantric Buddhism to Nāth hatha yoga

Tantric Buddhism

The earliest mentions of haṭha yoga as a specific set of techniques are from some seventeen

Kālacakratantra, haṭha yoga is for the first time defined[10] within the context of tantric sexual ritual:[4]

when the undying moment does not arise because the breath is unrestrained [even] when the image is seen by means of withdrawal (

restraining the bindu [i.e. semen] of the bodhicitta in the vajra [penis] when it is in the lotus of wisdom [vagina].[4]

While the actual means of practice are not specified, the forcing of the breath into the central channel and the restraining of ejaculation are central features of later haṭha yoga practice texts.[4][10]

Amṛtasiddhi, written bilingually in Sanskrit and Tibetan

The c. 11th century

Virupa.[14]

Early Hindu texts

The c. 10th century

Kubjikāmatatantra anticipates haṭha yoga with its description of the raising of Kundalini, and a 6-chakra system.[15][16]

Around the 11th century, techniques associated with Haṭha yoga also begin to be outlined in a series of early Hindu texts.[10] The aims of these practices were siddhis (supranormal powers such as levitation) and mukti (liberation).[12]

In India, haṭha yoga is associated in popular tradition with the Yogis of the

Matsyendranath (early 10th century), who is celebrated as a saint in both Hindu and Buddhist tantric and haṭha yoga schools, and regarded by tradition as the founder of the Natha Sampradaya. Early haṭha yoga works include:[8][19]

  • The
    Amṛtasiddhi, but adding the raising of Kundalinī.[8]
  • The
    vajrolī, amarolī, and sahajolī.[12]
  • The Vivekamārtaṇḍa, an early Nāth text (13th century) attributed to Goraknath, contemporaneous with the Dattātreyayogaśāstra, teaches nabhomudrā (i.e. khecarīmudrā), mahāmudrā, viparītakaraṇī and the three bandhas.[12] It also teaches six chakras and the raising of Kundalinī by means of "fire yoga" (vahniyogena).[8]
  • The
    Gorakṣaśataka, a Nāth text of the same period (13th century), teaches śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") along with the three bandhas.[12] "Stimulating Sarasvat" is done by wrapping the tongue in a cloth and pulling on it, stimulating the goddess Kundalinī who is said to dwell at the other end of the central channel. This text does not mention the preservation of bindu, but merely says that liberation is achieved by controlling the mind through controlling the breath.[8]
  • The ̣
    Śārṅgadharapaddhati, an anthology of verses on a wide range of subjects compiled by Sharngadharain 1363, describes Haṭha yoga including ̣the Dattātreyayogaśāstra's teachings on five mudrās.[20]
  • The
    Khecarīvidyā (14th century) teaches only the method of khecarīmudrā, which is meant to give one access to stores of amrta in the body and to raise Kundalinī via the six chakras.[8][12]
  • The Yogabīja (c. 14th century) teaches the three bandhas and śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") for the purpose of awakening Kundalinī.[8]
Early Bindu Model of Hatha Yoga, as described in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and other texts[15]
Late Kundalini Model of Hatha Yoga, as described in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and other texts[15]

The earliest haṭha yoga methods of the Amṛtasiddhi, Dattātreyayogaśāstra and Vivekamārtaṇḍa are used to raise and conserve bindu (

central channel.[3]

In contrast to these, early Nāth works like the Gorakṣaśataka and the Yogabīja teach a yoga based on raising Kundalinī (through śakticālanī mudrā). This is not called haṭha yoga in these early texts, but Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the mudrās of haṭha yoga meant to preserve bindu. Then, in later Nāth as well as Śākta texts, the adoption of haṭha yoga is more developed, and focused solely on the raising of Kundalinī without mentioning bindu.[8]

Mallinson sees these later texts as promoting a universalist yoga, available to all, without the need to study the metaphysics of Samkhya-yoga or the complex esotericism of Shaiva Tantra. Instead this "democratization of yoga" led to the teaching of these techniques to all people, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."[8]

Classical haṭha yoga

Haṭhayogapradīpikā

Main article: Hatha Yoga Pradipika

The Haṭhayogapradīpikā is one of the most influential texts of Haṭha yoga.

Adi Natha (Hindu god Shiva) followed by Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath.[23] It includes information about shatkarma (six acts of self purification), 15 asana (postures: seated, laying down, and non-seated), pranayama (breathing) and kumbhaka (breath retention), mudras (internalized energetic practices), meditation, chakras (centers of energy), kundalini, nadanusandhana (concentration on inner sound), and other topics.[24] The text includes the contradictory goals of raising Bindu, inherited from the Amritasiddhi, and of raising Kundalini, inherited from the Kubjikamatatantra.[15][16]

Post-Hathayogapradipika texts

18th century yoginis in Rajasthan

Post-Hathayogapradipika texts on Haṭha yoga include:[25][26]

Modern era

According to Mallinson, Haṭha yoga has been a broad movement across the Indian traditions, openly available to anyone:[33]

Haṭha yoga, like other methods of yoga, can be practiced by all, regardless of sex, caste, class, or creed. Many texts explicitly state that it is practice alone that leads to success. Sectarian affiliation and philosophical inclination are of no importance. The texts of Haṭha yoga, with some exceptions, do not include teachings on metaphysics or sect-specific practices.[34]

Haṭha yoga represented a trend towards the democratization of yoga insights and religion similar to the Bhakti movement. It eliminated the need for "either ascetic renunciation or priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia and sectarian initiations".[33] This led to its broad historic popularity in India. Later in the 20th century, states Mallinson, this disconnect of Haṭha yoga from religious aspects and the democratic access of Haṭha yoga enabled it to spread worldwide.[35]

Between the 17th and 19th century, however, the various urban Hindu and Muslim elites and ruling classes viewed Yogis with derision.

Raja yoga".[38] This common disdain by the officials and intellectuals slowed the study and adoption of Haṭha yoga.[39][40][c]

A well-known school of Haṭha yoga from the 20th century is the

Swami Satchidananda of Integral Yoga.[42] The Bihar School of Yoga has been one of the largest Haṭha yoga teacher training centers in India but is little known in Europe and the Americas.[43]

Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience provides an informative but fictionalised account of traditional Haṭha yoga as a spiritual path.[44][45]

Yoga as exercise

Main article: Yoga as exercise
Sivananda Yoga
.

Viniyoga.[47] After about 1975, yoga has become increasingly popular globally, in both developed and developing countries.[48]

Practice

Haṭha yoga practice is complex and requires certain characteristics of the yogi. Section 1.16 of the Haṭha yoga Pradipika, for example, states these to be utsaha (enthusiasm, fortitude), sahasa (courage), dhairya (patience), jnana tattva (essence for knowledge), nishcaya (resolve, determination) and tyaga (solitude, renunciation).[23]

In Western culture, Haṭha yoga is typically understood as exercise using asanas and it can be practiced as such.[49] In the Indian and Tibetan traditions, Haṭha yoga integrates ideas of ethics, diet, cleansing, pranayama (breathing exercises), meditation and a system for spiritual development of the yogi.[50][51]

Goals

The aims of Haṭha yoga in various Indian traditions have included physical siddhis (special powers, bodily benefits such as slowing age effects, magical powers) and spiritual liberation (moksha, mukti).[3][52] According to Mikel Burley, some of the siddhis are symbolic references to the cherished soteriological goals of Indian religions. For example, the Vayu Siddhi or "conquest of the air" literally implies rising into the air as in levitation, but it likely has a symbolic meaning of "a state of consciousness into a vast ocean of space" or "voidness" ideas found respectively in Hinduism and Buddhism.[53]

Some traditions such as the Kaula tantric sect of Hinduism and Sahajiya tantric sect of Buddhism pursued more esoteric goals such as alchemy (Nagarjuna, Carpita), magic, kalavancana (cheating death) and parakayapravesa (entering another's body).[3][54][55] Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation–driven means to liberation in Indian religions.[56] The majority of historic Haṭha yoga texts do not give any importance to siddhis.[57] The mainstream practice considered the pursuit of magical powers as a distraction or hindrance to Haṭha yoga's ultimate aim of spiritual liberation, self-knowledge or release from rebirth that the Indian traditions call mukti or moksha.[3][52]

The goals of Haṭha yoga, in its earliest texts, were linked to mumukshu (seeker of liberation, moksha). The later texts added and experimented with the goals of bubhukshu (seeker of enjoyment, bhoga).[58]

Diet

Main article: Mitahara

Some Haṭha texts place major emphasis on mitahara, which means "measured diet" or "moderate eating". For example, sections 1.58 to 1.63 and 2.14 of the Haṭha Yoga Pradipika and sections 5.16 to 5.32 of the Gheranda Samhita discuss the importance of proper diet to the body.[59][60] They link the food one eats and one's eating habits to balancing the body and gaining most benefits from the practice of Haṭha yoga. Eating, states the Gheranda Samhita, is a form of a devotional act to the temple of body, as if one is expressing affection for the gods.[59] Similarly, sections 3.20 and 5.25 of the Shiva Samhita includes mitahara as an essential part of a holistic Haṭha yoga practice.[61]

Verses 1.57 through 1.63 of the critical edition of Haṭha Yoga Pradipika suggests that taste cravings should not drive one's eating habits, rather the best diet is one that is tasty, nutritious and likable as well as sufficient to meet the needs of one's body and for one's inner self. It recommends that one must "eat only when one feels hungry" and "neither overeat nor eat to completely fill one's stomach; rather leave a quarter portion empty and fill three quarters with quality food and fresh water".[62]

According to another text, the

Goraksha Sataka, eating a controlled diet is one of the three important parts of a complete and successful practice. The text does not provide details or recipes. The text states, according to Mallinson, "food should be unctuous and sweet", one must not overeat and stop when still a bit hungry (leave a quarter of the stomach empty), and whatever one eats should please Shiva.[63]

Purifications

The shatkarmas were intended to purify the subtle body.[64]
Main article: Shatkarma

Haṭha yoga teaches various steps of inner body cleansing with consultations of one's yoga teacher. Its texts vary in specifics and number of cleansing methods, ranging from simple hygiene practices to the peculiar exercises such as reversing seminal fluid flow.

trataka (cleanse eyes), nauli (abdominal massage) and kapalabhati (cleanse phlegm).[65] The actual procedure for cleansing varies by the Haṭha yoga text, some suggesting a water wash and others describing the use of cleansing aids such as cloth.[66]

Breath control

Main article: Pranayama

Prāṇāyāma is made out of two Sanskrit words prāṇa (प्राण, breath, vital energy, life force)[67][68] and āyāma (आयाम, restraining, extending, stretching).[69][68]

Some Haṭha yoga texts teach breath exercises but do not refer to it as Pranayama. For example, section 3.55 of the GherandaSamhita calls it Ghatavastha (state of being the pot).[70] In others, the term Kumbhaka or Prana-samrodha replaces Pranayama.[71] Regardless of the nomenclature, proper breathing and the use of breathing techniques during a posture is a mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Its texts state that proper breathing exercises cleanse and balance the body.[72]

The Haṭha Yoga Pradipika recommends Siddhasana for breathing exercises.[73]

Pranayama is one of the core practices of Haṭha yoga, found in its major texts as one of the limbs regardless of whether the total number of limbs taught are four or more.[74][75][76] It is the practice of consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation), a concept shared with all schools of yoga.[77][78]

This is done in several ways, inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, slowing the inhalation and exhalation, consciously changing the time/length of breath (deep, short breathing), combining these with certain focussed muscle exercises.[79] Pranayama or proper breathing is an integral part of asanas. According to section 1.38 of Haṭha yoga pradipika, Siddhasana is the most suitable and easiest posture to learn breathing exercises.[73]

The different Haṭha yoga texts discuss pranayama in various ways. For example, Haṭha yoga pradipka in section 2.71 explains it as a threefold practice: recaka (exhalation), puraka (inhalation) and kumbhaka (retention).[80] During the exhalation and inhalation, the text states that three things move: air, prana and yogi's thoughts, and all three are intimately connected.[80] It is kumbhaka where stillness and dissolution emerges. The text divides kumbhaka into two kinds: sahita (supported) and kevala (complete). Sahita kumbhaka is further sub-divided into two types: retention with inhalation, retention with exhalation.[81] Each of these breath units are then combined in different permutations, time lengths, posture and targeted muscle exercises in the belief that these aerate and assist blood flow to targeted regions of the body.[79][82]

Posture

Kukkutasana was described in the 13th century Vāsiṣṭha Saṁhitā.[83]
Main article: Asana

Before starting yoga practice, state the Haṭha yoga texts, the yogi must establish a suitable place. This is to be away from all distractions, preferably a mathika (hermitage) distant from falling rocks, fire and a damp shifting surface.[84] Once a peaceful stable location has been chosen, the yogi begins the posture exercises called asanas. These postures come in numerous forms. For a beginner, states the historian of religion Mircea Eliade, the asanas are uncomfortable, typically difficult, cause the body to shake, and are typically unbearable to hold for extended periods of time.[85] However, with repetition and persistence, as the muscle tone improves, the effort reduces and posture improves. According to the Haṭha yoga texts, each posture becomes perfect when the "effort disappears", one no longer thinks about the posture and one's body position, breathes normally in pranayama, and is able to dwell in one's meditation (anantasamapattibhyam).[86]

The asanas vary significantly between Haṭha yoga texts, and some of the names are used for different poses.[87] Most of the early asanas are inspired by nature, such as a form of union with symmetric, harmonious flowing shapes of animals, birds or plants.[88]

Asanas (postures) in some Haṭha yoga texts
Sanskrit[d] English Gheranda
Samhita
[89]
Haṭha Yoga
Pradipika
[89][90]
 Shiva
Samhita
[91]
Bhadrāsana
 Fortunate 2.9–910 1.53–954   —
Bhujaṅgāsana
 Serpent 2.42–943   —   —
Dhanurāsana
 Bow 2.18 1.25   —
Garuḍāsana
 Eagle 2.37   —   —
Gomukhāsana
 Cow face 2.16 1.20   —
Gorakṣāsana Cowherd 2.24–925 1.28–929 3.108–9112
Guptāsana
 Secret 2.20   —   —
Kukkutāsana Rooster 2.31 1.23   —
Kūrmāsana
 Tortoise 2.32 1.22   —
Makarāsana
 Crocodile 2.40   —   —
Mandukāsana Frog 2.34   —   —
Matsyāsana
 Fish 2.21   —   —
Matsyendrāsana
 Matsyendra's pose 2.22–923 1.26–927   —
Mayūrāsana
 Peacock 2.29–930 1.30–931   —
Muktāsana
 Freedom 2.11   —   —
Padmāsana
 Lotus 2.8 1.44–949 3.102–9107
Paschimottanāsana Seated Forward Bend 2.26 1.30–931   —
Sankatāsana Contracted 2.28   —   —
Shalabhāsana
 Locust 2.39   —   —
Śavāsana
 Corpse 2.19 1.34   —
Siddhāsana
 Accomplished 2.7 1.35–943 3.97–9101
Siṁhāsana
 Lion 2.14–915 1.50–952   —
Yogāsana
 Union 2.44–945   —   —
Svastikāsana
 Auspicious 2.13 1.19 3.113–9115
Vṛṣāsana Bull 2.38   —   —
Uṣṭrāsana
 Camel 2.41   —   —
Utkaṭāsana
 Fierce 2.27   —   —
Uttana Kurmāsana Raised Tortoise 2.33 1.24   —
Uttana Mandukāsana
 Raised Frog 2.35   —   —
Vajrāsana Thunderbolt 2.12   —   —
Virāsana Hero 2.17   — 3.21
Vṛkṣāsana
 Tree 2.36   —   —

Mudras

mudras were intended to manipulate vital energies.[92][93]
Further information:
Mudra (Yoga), Kundalini, and Chakra

According to Mallinson, in the earliest formulations, Haṭha yoga was a means to raise and preserve the bindu, believed to be one of the vital energies. The two early Haṭha yoga techniques to achieve this were inverted poses to trap the bindu using gravity, or

mudras (yogic seals)[e] to make breath flow into the centre channel and force bindu up. However, in later Haṭha yoga, the Kaula visualization of Kuṇḍalini rising through a system of chakras was overlaid onto the earlier bindu-oriented system. The aim was to access amṛta (the nectar of immortality) situated in the head, which subsequently floods the body, in contradiction with the early Haṭha yoga goal of preserving bindu.[93]

The classical sources for the mudras are the

Mula Bandha, Mahamudra, Viparita Karani, Khecarī mudrā, and Vajroli mudra.[95]

Meditation

The Haṭha Yoga Pradipika text dedicates almost a third of its verses to meditation.[96] Similarly, other major texts of Haṭha yoga such as the Shiva Samhita and the Gheranda Samhita discuss meditation.[97] In all three texts, meditation is the ultimate goal of all the preparatory cleansing, asanas, pranayama and other steps. The aim of this meditation is to realize Nada-Brahman, or the complete absorption and union with the Brahman through inner mystic sound.[97] According to Guy Beck – a professor of Religious Studies known for his studies on Yoga and music, a Hatha yogi in this stage of practice seeks "inner union of physical opposites", into an inner state of samadhi that is described by Haṭha yoga texts in terms of divine sounds, and as a union with Nada-Brahman in musical literature of ancient India.[98]

Differences from Patanjali yoga

Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga. It shares numerous ideas and doctrines with other forms of yoga, such as the more ancient system taught by Patanjali. The differences are in the addition of some aspects, and different emphasis on others.[99] For example, pranayama is crucial in all yogas, but it is the mainstay of Haṭha yoga.[72][100] Mudras and certain kundalini-related ideas are included in Haṭha yoga, but not mentioned in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[101] Patanjali yoga considers asanas important but dwells less on various asanas than the Haṭha yoga texts. In contrast, the Haṭha yoga texts consider meditation as important but dwell less on meditation methodology than Patanjali yoga.[102]

The Haṭha yoga texts acknowledge and refer to Patanjali yoga, attesting to the latter's antiquity. However, this acknowledgment is essentially only in passing, as they offer no serious commentary or exposition of Patanjali's system. This suggests that Haṭha yoga developed as a branch of the more ancient yoga.[103] According to P.V. Kane, Patanjali yoga concentrates more on the yoga of the mind, while Haṭha yoga focuses on body and health.[104] Some Hindu texts do not recognize this distinction. For example, the Yogatattva Upanishad teaches a system that includes all aspects of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and all additional elements of Haṭha yoga practice.[105]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. squatting posture which may be related to hathayogic techniques such as mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha, mūlabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalinī."[8]
  2. ^ These are the Sarvabuddhasamāyogaḍākinījālaśaṃvara, Guhyasamājatantra, *Caryāmelāpakapradīpa, Abhidhānottaratantra, Samputatilaka, Sekanirdeśa, Caturmudrānvaya, Laghukālacakratantra, Vimalaprabhā, Saḍangayoga of Anupamaraksita, Sekoddeśaṭīkā, Sekanirdeśapañjikā, Dākārṇavatantra, Gūdhapadā, Gunabharaṇī, Amṛtakaṇikā, and Yogimanoharā.[10]
  3. ^ Cartoons in the first half of the 20th century mocked "Hindu holy men" in Haṭha yoga poses, accompanied with stories of weaknesses of Western women who fall for their yoga routines.[41]
  4. ^ As Rosen states, the asanas vary significantly between Haṭha yoga texts, so some of the names may have been used for different poses than those now associated with these Sanskrit names.[87]
  5. ^ Not to be confused with hand mudras, which are gestures.

References

  1. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. xx.
  2. ^ "Definition of HATHA YOGA". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Mallinson 2011, p. 770.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Birch 2011, pp. 527–558
  5. ^ a b Mallinson 2011, pp. 770–781.
  6. ^ a b c d Mallinson 2016b, pp. 1–14
  7. ^ a b White 2012, p. 57.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Mallinson 2016, pp. 109–140
  9. ^ a b Mallinson 2008, pp. 17–19.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Mallinson 2020, pp. 177–199.
  11. ^ Mallinson & Szántó 2021, pp. 3–5, 20–23.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Mallinson 2011, p. 771.
  13. ^ Jacobsen 2011, p. 331.
  14. ^ Mallinson 2019, pp. 1–33.
  15. ^ a b c d Mallinson & Singleton 2017, pp. 32, 180–181.
  16. ^ a b c Singleton 2020.
  17. ^ "Mallinson, James (2011) "Nāth Saṃpradāya". In: Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol. 3. Brill, pp. 407-428" (PDF). Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  18. ^ Briggs 1938, p. 228.
  19. ^ Mallinson 2011, pp. 771–772.
  20. ^ a b Mallinson 2011, p. 772.
  21. ^ Wernicke-Olesen 2015, p. 147.
  22. ^ a b Mallinson 2014.
  23. ^ a b Svatmarama 2002, pp. 1–7.
  24. ^ Mallinson 2011, pp. 772–773.
  25. ^ Mallinson 2011, pp. 773–774.
  26. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 27–28.
  27. ^ a b Mallinson 2011, p. 773.
  28. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. 493.
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  30. ^ a b c d Mallinson 2011, p. 774.
  31. ^ Singleton 2010, p. 28.
  32. ^ Mallinson 2004, pp. ix–x.
  33. ^ a b Mallinson 2012, p. 26.
  34. ^ Mallinson 2011, p. 778.
  35. ^ Mallinson 2011, pp. 778–779.
  36. ^ White 2012, pp. 8–9.
  37. ^ Mayaram 2003, pp. 40–41.
  38. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 69–72, 77–79.
  39. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 77–78.
  40. ^ White 2011, pp. 20–22.
  41. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 78–81.
  42. ^ a b Mallinson 2011, p. 779.
  43. ^ a b Singleton 2010, p. 213 note 14.
  44. ^ Sjoman 1999, p. 38.
  45. ^ Veenhof 2011, p. 20.
  46. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 88, 175–210.
  47. ^ Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2008, pp. 151–159.
  48. ^ De Michelis 2007, pp. 1–19.
  49. ^ Rosen 2012, pp. 3–4.
  50. ^ Burley 2000, pp. ix–x, 6–12.
  51. ^ Yeshe 2005, pp. 97–130.
  52. ^ a b Burley 2000, pp. 44–950, 99–9100, 219–9220.
  53. ^ Burley 2000, pp. 203–9204.
  54. ^ Muller-Ortega 2010, pp. 55–56.
  55. ^ White 2011, pp. 10–12.
  56. ^ Mallinson 2013, pp. 165–180
  57. ^ Mallinson 2011b, pp. 329–9330.
  58. ^ Mallinson 2011b, p. 328.
  59. ^ a b Rosen 2012, pp. 25–26.
  60. ^ Eliade 2009, p. 231 with footnote 78.
  61. ^ Mallinson 2007, pp. 44, 110.
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  63. ^ White 2011, pp. 258–259, 267.
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  65. ^ a b Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2008, p. 141.
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  67. ^ prAna Sanskrit–English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
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Bibliography

External links

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