Averroes
Averroes Ibn Rushd | |
---|---|
ابن رشد | |
unity of the intellect |
Ibn Rushd (
Averroes was a strong proponent of
His legacy in the
Name
Ibn Rushd's full, transliterated Arabic name is "Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn ʾAḥmad Ibn Rushd".[5][6] Sometimes, the nickname al-Hafid ("The Grandson") is appended to his name, to distinguish him from his grandfather, a famous judge and jurist.[7] "Averroes" is the Medieval Latin form of "Ibn Rushd"; it was derived from the Spanish pronunciation of the original Arabic name, wherein "Ibn" becomes "Aben" or "Aven".[8] Other forms of the name in European languages include "Ibin-Ros-din", "Filius Rosadis", "Ibn-Rusid", "Ben-Raxid", "Ibn-Ruschod", "Den-Resched", "Aben-Rassad", "Aben-Rasd", "Aben-Rust", "Avenrosdy", "Avenryz", "Adveroys", "Benroist", "Avenroyth" and "Averroysta".[8]
Biography
Early life and education
Little is known about Averroes's early life.
According to his traditional biographers, Averroes's education was "excellent",
Career
By 1153 Averroes was in Marrakesh (present-day Morocco), the capital of the Almohad Caliphate, to perform astronomical observations and to support the Almohad project of building new colleges.[16][17] He was hoping to find physical laws of astronomical movements instead of only the mathematical laws known at the time but this research was unsuccessful.[17] During his stay in Marrakesh he likely met Ibn Tufayl, a renowned philosopher and the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan who was also the court physician in Marrakesh.[14][17] Averroes and ibn Tufayl became friends despite the differences in their philosophies.[14][18]
In 1169 Ibn Tufayl introduced Averroes to the Almohad caliph
After their introduction, Averroes remained in Abu Yaqub's favor until the caliph's death in 1184.[17] When the caliph complained to Ibn Tufayl about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's work, Ibn Tufayl recommended to the caliph that Averroes work on explaining it.[17][19] This was the beginning of Averroes's massive commentaries on Aristotle;[19] his first works on the subject were written in 1169.[19]
In the same year, Averroes was appointed qadi (judge) in Seville.
In 1184 Caliph Abu Yaqub died and was succeeded by Abu Yusuf Yaqub.[17] Initially, Averroes remained in royal favor but in 1195 his fortune reversed.[17][19] Various charges were made against him and he was tried by a tribunal in Córdoba.[17][19] The tribunal condemned his teachings, ordered the burning of his works and banished Averroes to nearby Lucena.[17] Early biographers' reasons for this fall from grace include a possible insult to the caliph in his writings[19] but modern scholars attribute it to political reasons. The Encyclopaedia of Islam said the caliph distanced himself from Averroes to gain support from more orthodox ulema, who opposed Averroes and whose support al-Mansur needed for his war against Christian kingdoms.[17] Historian of Islamic philosophy Majid Fakhry also wrote that public pressure from traditional Maliki jurists who were opposed to Averroes played a role.[19]
After a few years, Averroes returned to court in Marrakesh and was again in the caliph's favor.[17] He died shortly afterwards, on 11 December 1198 (9 Safar 595 in the Islamic calendar).[17] He was initially buried in North Africa but his body was later moved to Córdoba for another funeral, at which future Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) was present.[17]
Works
Averroes was a prolific writer and his works, according to Fakhry, "covered a greater variety of subjects" than those of any of his predecessors in the East, including philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence or legal theory, and linguistics.
Commentaries on Aristotle
Averroes wrote commentaries on nearly all of Aristotle's surviving works.[21] The only exception is Politics, which he did not have access to, so he wrote commentaries on Plato's Republic.[21] He classified his commentaries into three categories that modern scholars have named short, middle and long commentaries.[25] Most of the short commentaries (jami) were written early in his career and contain summaries of Aristotlean doctrines.[22] The middle commentaries (talkhis) contain paraphrases that clarify and simplify Aristotle's original text.[22] The middle commentaries were probably written in response to his patron caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf's complaints about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's original texts and to help others in a similar position.[22][25] The long commentaries (tafsir or sharh), or line-by-line commentaries, include the complete text of the original works with a detailed analysis of each line.[26] The long commentaries are very detailed and contain a high degree of original thought,[22] and were unlikely to be intended for a general audience.[25] Only five of Aristotle's works had all three types of commentaries: Physics, Metaphysics, On the Soul, On the Heavens, and Posterior Analytics.[21]
Stand-alone philosophical works
Averroes also wrote stand-alone philosophical treatises, including On the Intellect, On the Syllogism, On Conjunction with the Active Intellect, On Time, On the Heavenly Sphere and On the Motion of the Sphere. He also wrote several
Islamic theology
Scholarly sources, including Fakhry and the
Medicine
Averroes, who served as the royal physician at the Almohad court, wrote a number of medical treatises. The most famous was al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb ("The General Principles of Medicine", Latinized in the west as the Colliget), written around 1162, before his appointment at court.[31] The title of this book is the opposite of al-Juz'iyyat fi al-Tibb ("The Specificities of Medicine"), written by his friend Ibn Zuhr, and the two collaborated intending that their works complement each other.[32] The Latin translation of the Colliget became a medical textbook in Europe for centuries.[31] His other surviving titles include On Treacle, The Differences in Temperament, and Medicinal Herbs.[33] He also wrote summaries of the works of Greek physician Galen (died c. 210) and a commentary on Avicenna's Urjuzah fi al-Tibb ("Poem on Medicine").[31]
Jurisprudence and law
Averroes served multiple tenures as judge and produced multiple works in the fields of Islamic jurisprudence or legal theory. The only book that survives today is Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid ("Primer of the Discretionary Scholar").
Philosophical ideas
Aristotelianism in the Islamic philosophical tradition
In his philosophical writings, Averroes attempted to return to Aristotelianism, which according to him had been distorted by the Neoplatonist tendencies of Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna.[37][38] He rejected al-Farabi's attempt to merge the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, pointing out the differences between the two, such as Aristotle's rejection of Plato's theory of ideas.[39] He also criticized Al-Farabi's works on logic for misinterpreting its Aristotelian source.[40] He wrote an extensive critique of Avicenna, who was the standard-bearer of Islamic Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages.[41] He argued that Avicenna's theory of emanation had many fallacies and was not found in the works of Aristotle.[41] Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's view that existence is merely an accident added to essence, arguing the reverse; something exists per se and essence can only be found by subsequent abstraction.[42] He also rejected Avicenna's modality and Avicenna's argument to prove the existence of God as the Necessary Existent.[43]
Averroes felt strongly about the incorporation of Greek thought into the Muslim world, and wrote that "if before us someone has inquired into [wisdom], it behooves us to seek help from what he has said. It is irrelevant whether he belongs to our community or to another".[44]
Relation between religion and philosophy
During Averroes's lifetime, philosophy came under attack from the
In Decisive Treatise, Averroes argues that philosophy—which for him represented conclusions reached using reason and careful method—cannot contradict revelations in Islam because they are just two different methods of reaching the truth, and "truth cannot contradict truth".[48][49] When conclusions reached by philosophy appear to contradict the text of the revelation, then according to Averroes, revelation must be subjected to interpretation or allegorical understanding to remove the contradiction.[45][48] This interpretation must be done by those "rooted in knowledge"—a phrase taken from the Quran, 3:7, which for Averroes refers to philosophers who during his lifetime had access to the "highest methods of knowledge".[48][49] He also argues that the Quran calls for Muslims to study philosophy because the study and reflection of nature would increase a person's knowledge of "the Artisan" (God).[50] He quotes Quranic passages calling on Muslims to reflect on nature and uses them to render a fatwa (legal opinion) that philosophy is allowed for Muslims and is probably an obligation, at least among those who have the talent for it.[51]
Averroes also distinguishes between three modes of discourse: the rhetorical (based on persuasion) accessible to the common masses; the dialectical (based on debate) and often employed by theologians and the ulama (scholars); and the demonstrative (based on logical deduction).[45][50] According to Averroes, the Quran uses the rhetorical method of inviting people to the truth, which allows it to reach the common masses with its persuasiveness,[52] whereas philosophy uses the demonstrative methods that were only available to the learned but provided the best possible understanding and knowledge.[52]
Averroes also tries to deflect Al-Ghazali's criticisms of philosophy by saying that many of them apply only to the philosophy of Avicenna and not to that of Aristotle, which Averroes argues to be the true philosophy from which Avicenna has deviated.[53]
Nature of God
Existence
Averroes lays out his views on the existence and nature of God in the treatise The Exposition of the Methods of Proof.
God's attributes
Averroes upholds the doctrine of divine unity (tawhid) and argues that God has seven divine attributes: knowledge, life, power, will, hearing, vision and speech. He devotes the most attention to the attribute of knowledge and argues that divine knowledge differs from human knowledge because God knows the universe because God is its cause while humans only know the universe through its effects.[54]
Averroes argues that the attribute of life can be inferred because it is the precondition of knowledge and also because God willed objects into being.[58] Power can be inferred by God's ability to bring creations into existence. Averroes also argues that knowledge and power inevitably give rise to speech. Regarding vision and speech, he says that because God created the world, he necessarily knows every part of it in the same way an artist understands his or her work intimately. Because two elements of the world are the visual and the auditory, God must necessarily possess vision and speech.[54]
The omnipotence paradox was first addressed by Averroes[59] and only later by Thomas Aquinas.[60]
Pre-eternity of the world
In the centuries preceding Averroes, there had been a debate between Muslim thinkers questioning whether the world was created at a specific moment in time or whether it has
Averroes responded to Al-Ghazali in his
Politics
Averroes states his political philosophy in his commentary of Plato's Republic. He combines his ideas with Plato's and with Islamic tradition; he considers the ideal state to be one based on the Islamic law (
According to Averroes, there are two methods of teaching virtue to citizens; persuasion and coercion.[68] Persuasion is the more natural method consisting of rhetorical, dialectical and demonstrative methods; sometimes, however, coercion is necessary for those not amenable to persuasion, e.g. enemies of the state.[68] Therefore, he justifies war as a last resort, which he also supports using Quranic arguments.[68] Consequently, he argues that a ruler should have both wisdom and courage, which are needed for governance and defense of the state.[69]
Like Plato, Averroes calls for women to share with men in the administration of the state, including participating as soldiers, philosophers and rulers.[70] He regrets that contemporaneous Muslim societies limited the public role of women; he says this limitation is harmful to the state's well-being.[66]
Averroes also accepted Plato's ideas of the deterioration of the ideal state. He cites examples from Islamic history when the
Diversity of Islamic law
In his tenure as judge and jurist, Averroes for the most part ruled and gave fatwas according to the Maliki school of Islamic law which was dominant in Al-Andalus and the western Islamic world during his time.[72] However, he frequently acted as "his own man", including sometimes rejecting the "consensus of the people of Medina" argument that is one of the traditional Maliki position.[73] In Bidāyat al-Mujtahid, one of his major contributions to the field of Islamic law, he not only describes the differences between various school of Islamic laws but also tries to theoretically explain the reasons for the difference and why they are inevitable.[74] Even though all the schools of Islamic law are ultimately rooted in the Quran and hadith, there are "causes that necessitate differences" (al-asbab al-lati awjabat al-ikhtilaf).[75][76] They include differences in interpreting scripture in a general or specific sense,[77] in interpreting scriptural commands as obligatory or merely recommended, or prohibitions as discouragement or total prohibition,[78] as well as ambiguities in the meaning of words or expressions.[79] Averroes also writes that the application of qiyas (reasoning by analogy) could give rise to different legal opinion because jurists might disagree on the applicability of certain analogies[80] and different analogies might contradict each other.[81][82]
Natural philosophy
Astronomy
As did
Averroes was aware that Arabic and Andalusian astronomers of his time focused on "mathematical" astronomy, which enabled accurate predictions through calculations but did not provide a detailed physical explanation of how the universe worked.[87] According to him, "the astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists."[88] He attempted to reform astronomy to be reconciled with physics, especially the physics of Aristotle. His long commentary of Aristotle's Metaphysics describes the principles of his attempted reform, but later in his life he declared that his attempts had failed.[17][83] He confessed that he had not enough time or knowledge to reconcile the observed planetary motions with Aristotelian principles.[83] In addition, he did not know the works of Eudoxus and Callippus, and so he missed the context of some of Aristotle's astronomical works.[83] However, his works influenced astronomer Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji (d. 1204) who adopted most of his reform principles and did succeed in proposing an early astronomical system based on Aristotelian physics.[89]
Physics
In physics, Averroes did not adopt the inductive method that was being developed by Al-Biruni in the Islamic world and is closer to today's physics.[50] Rather, he was—in the words of historian of science Ruth Glasner—an "exegetical" scientist who produced new theses about nature through discussions of previous texts, especially the writings of Aristotle.[90] because of this approach, he was often depicted as an unimaginative follower of Aristotle, but Glasner argues that Averroes's work introduced highly original theories of physics, especially his elaboration of Aristotle's minima naturalia and on motion as forma fluens, which were taken up in the west and are important to the overall development of physics.[91] Averroes also proposed a definition of force as "the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body"—a definition close to that of power in today's physics.[92]
Psychology
Averroes expounds his thoughts on psychology in his three commentaries on Aristotle's
In his last commentary—called the Long Commentary—he proposes another theory, which becomes known as the theory of "the
Medicine
While his works in medicine indicate an in-depth theoretical knowledge in medicine of his time, he likely had limited expertise as a practitioner, and declared in one of his works that he had not "practiced much apart from myself, my relatives or my friends."
Another of his departure from Galen and the medical theories of the time is his description of stroke as produced by the brain and caused by an obstruction of the arteries from the heart to the brain.[102] This explanation is closer to the modern understanding of the disease compared to that of Galen, which attributes it to the obstruction between heart and the periphery.[102] He was also the first to describe the signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease in his Kulliyat, although he did not give the disease a name.[103]
Legacy
In Jewish tradition
In Latin tradition
Averroes's main influence on the Christian West was through his extensive commentaries on Aristotle.[107] After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, western Europe fell into a cultural decline that resulted in the loss of nearly all of the intellectual legacy of the Classical Greek scholars, including Aristotle.[108] Averroes's commentaries, which were translated into Latin and entered western Europe in the thirteenth century, provided an expert account of Aristotle's legacy and made them available again.[105][109] The influence of his commentaries led to Averroes being referred to simply as "The Commentator" rather than by name in Latin Christian writings.[25] He has been sometimes described as the "father of free thought and unbelief"[110][111] and "father of rationalism".[4]
Authorities of the Roman Catholic Church reacted against the spread of Averroism. In 1270, the
Averroes received a mixed reception from other Catholic thinkers; Thomas Aquinas, a leading Catholic thinker of the thirteenth century, relied extensively on Averroes's interpretation of Aristotle but disagreed with him on many points.[25][115] For example, he wrote a detailed attack on Averroes's theory that all humans share the same intellect.[116] He also opposed Averroes on the eternity of the universe and divine providence.[117]
The Catholic Church's condemnations of 1270 and 1277, and the detailed critique by Aquinas weakened the spread of Averroism in Latin Christendom,[118] though it maintained a following until the sixteenth century, when European thought began to diverge from Aristotelianism.[105] Leading Averroists in the following centuries included John of Jandun and Marsilius of Padua (fourteenth century), Gaetano da Thiene and Pietro Pomponazzi (fifteenth century), and Agostino Nifo and Marcantonio Zimara (sixteenth century).[119]
In Islamic tradition
Averroes had no major influence on Islamic philosophic thought until modern times.
Cultural references
References to Averroes appear in the popular culture of both the western and Muslim world. The poem
Averroes is referenced briefly in
A 1947 short story by
Mael Malihabadi's Urdu Historical fictional novel 'falsfi ibn e Rushd'[130] revolves around his life.
References
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Averroism is a philosophical movement named after the sixth/twelfth-century Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 595/1198), which began in the thirteenth century among masters of arts at the University of Paris and continued through the seventeenth century.
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- ^ Fakhry 2001, pp. 77–78.
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- ^ Averroës, Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence) trans. Simon Van Den Bergh, Luzac & Company 1969, sections 529–536
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- Arnaldez, Roger (2000) [1998]. Averroes: A Rationalist in Islam. Translated by David Streight. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0268020086.
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External links
Works of Averroes
- DARE, the Digital Averroes Research Environment, an ongoing effort to collect digital images of all Averroes manuscripts and full texts of all three language-traditions.
- Averroes, Islamic Philosophy Online (links to works by and about Averroes in several languages)
- The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes: Tractata translated from the Arabic, trans. Mohammad Jamil-ur-Rehman, 1921
- The Incoherence of the Incoherence translation by Simon van den Bergh. [N.B. : Because these refutations consist mainly of commentary on statements by al-Ghazali which are quoted verbatim, this work contains a translation of most of the Tahafut.] There is also an Italian translation by Massimo Campanini, Averroè, L'incoerenza dell'incoerenza dei filosofi, Turin, Utet, 1997.
- SIEPM Virtual Library, including scanned copies (PDF) of the Editio Juntina of Averroes's works in Latin (Venice 1550–1562)
- Ibn Rushd (2017). Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa Nihayat al-Muqtasid. Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah. ISBN 978-2745134127.
Information about Averroes
- Fouad Ben Ahmed & Robert Pasnau. "Ibn Rushd [Averroes]". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- H. C. Hillier. "Ibn Rushd (Averroes)". on the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Bibliography, a comprehensive overview of the extant bibliography
- Averroes Database, including a full bibliography of his works
- Podcast on Averroes, at NPR's Throughline