Biosensor
A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.[1][2][3][4] The sensitive biological element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms,
Biosensor system
A biosensor typically consists of a bio-receptor (enzyme/antibody/cell/nucleic acid/aptamer), transducer component (semi-conducting material/nanomaterial), and
Bioreceptors
In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. While the type of biomolecule used can vary widely, biosensors can be classified according to common types of bioreceptor interactions involving: antibody/antigen,[11] enzymes/ligands, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, or biomimetic materials.[12][13]
Antibody/antigen interactions
An
Antibody-antigen interactions can also be used for serological testing, or the detection of circulating antibodies in response to a specific disease. Importantly, serology tests have become an important part of the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic.[16]
Artificial binding proteins
The use of antibodies as the bio-recognition component of biosensors has several drawbacks. They have high molecular weights and limited stability, contain essential disulfide bonds and are expensive to produce. In one approach to overcome these limitations, recombinant binding fragments (
Enzymatic interactions
The specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of enzymes make them popular bioreceptors. Analyte recognition is enabled through several possible mechanisms: 1) the enzyme converting the analyte into a product that is sensor-detectable, 2) detecting enzyme inhibition or activation by the analyte, or 3) monitoring modification of enzyme properties resulting from interaction with the analyte.[15] The main reasons for the common use of enzymes in biosensors are: 1) ability to catalyze a large number of reactions; 2) potential to detect a group of analytes (substrates, products, inhibitors, and modulators of the catalytic activity); and 3) suitability with several different transduction methods for detecting the analyte. Notably, since enzymes are not consumed in reactions, the biosensor can easily be used continuously. The catalytic activity of enzymes also allows lower limits of detection compared to common binding techniques. However, the sensor's lifetime is limited by the stability of the enzyme.
Affinity binding receptors
Antibodies have a high
Nucleic acid interactions
Biosensors employing nucleic acid based receptors can be either based on complementary base pairing interactions referred to as genosensors or specific nucleic acid based antibody mimics (aptamers) as aptasensors.[25] In the former, the recognition process is based on the principle of complementary base pairing, adenine:thymine and cytosine:guanine in DNA. If the target nucleic acid sequence is known, complementary sequences can be synthesized, labeled, and then immobilized on the sensor. The hybridization event can be optically detected and presence of target DNA/RNA ascertained. In the latter, aptamers generated against the target recognise it via interplay of specific non-covalent interactions and induced fitting. These aptamers can be labelled with a fluorophore/metal nanoparticles easily for optical detection or may be employed for label-free electrochemical or cantilever based detection platforms for a wide range of target molecules or complex targets like cells and viruses.[26][27] Additionally, aptamers can be combined with nucleic acid enzymes, such as RNA-cleaving DNAzymes, providing both target recognition and signal generation in a single molecule, which shows potential applications in the development of multiplex biosensors.[28]
Epigenetics
It has been proposed that properly optimized integrated optical resonators can be exploited for detecting epigenetic modifications (e.g. DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications) in body fluids from patients affected by cancer or other diseases.[29] Photonic biosensors with ultra-sensitivity are nowadays being developed at a research level to easily detect cancerous cells within the patient's urine.[30] Different research projects aim to develop new portable devices that use cheap, environmentally friendly, disposable cartridges that require only simple handling with no need of further processing, washing, or manipulation by expert technicians.[31]
Organelles
Organelles form separate compartments inside cells and usually perform functions independently. Different kinds of organelles have various metabolic pathways and contain enzymes to fulfill its function. Commonly used organelles include lysosome, chloroplast and mitochondria. The spatial-temporal distribution pattern of calcium is closely related to ubiquitous signaling pathway. Mitochondria actively participate in the metabolism of calcium ions to control the function and also modulate the calcium related signaling pathways. Experiments have proved that mitochondria have the ability to respond to high calcium concentrations generated in their proximity by opening the calcium channels.[32] In this way, mitochondria can be used to detect the calcium concentration in medium and the detection is very sensitive due to high spatial resolution. Another application of mitochondria is used for detection of water pollution. Detergent compounds' toxicity will damage the cell and subcellular structure including mitochondria. The detergents will cause a swelling effect which could be measured by an absorbance change. Experiment data shows the change rate is proportional to the detergent concentration, providing a high standard for detection accuracy.[33]
Cells
Cells are often used in bioreceptors because they are sensitive to surrounding environment and they can respond to all kinds of stimulants. Cells tend to attach to the surface so they can be easily immobilized. Compared to organelles they remain active for longer period and the reproducibility makes them reusable. They are commonly used to detect global parameter like stress condition, toxicity and organic derivatives. They can also be used to monitor the treatment effect of drugs. One application is to use cells to determine herbicides which are main aquatic contaminant.[34] Microalgae are entrapped on a quartz microfiber and the chlorophyll fluorescence modified by herbicides is collected at the tip of an optical fiber bundle and transmitted to a fluorimeter. The algae are continuously cultured to get optimized measurement. Results show that detection limit of certain herbicide can reach sub-ppb concentration level. Some cells can also be used to monitor the microbial corrosion.[35] Pseudomonas sp. is isolated from corroded material surface and immobilized on acetylcellulose membrane. The respiration activity is determined by measuring oxygen consumption. There is linear relationship between the current generated and the concentration of sulfuric acid. The response time is related to the loading of cells and surrounding environments and can be controlled to no more than 5min.
Tissue
Tissues are used for biosensor for the abundance of enzymes existing. Advantages of tissues as biosensors include the following:[36]
- easier to immobilize compared to cells and organelles
- the higher activity and stability from maintaining enzymes in the natural environment
- the availability and low price
- the avoidance of tedious work of extraction, centrifuge, and purification of enzymes
- necessary cofactors for an enzyme to function exists
- the diversity providing a wide range of choices concerning different objectives.
There also exist some disadvantages of tissues, like the lack of specificity due to the interference of other enzymes and longer response time due to the transport barrier.
Microbial biosensors
Microbial biosensors exploit the response of bacteria to a given substance. For example, arsenic can be detected using the ars operon found in several bacterial taxon.[37]
Surface attachment of the biological elements
An important part of a biosensor is to attach the biological elements (small molecules/protein/cells) to the surface of the sensor (be it metal, polymer, or glass). The simplest way is to functionalize the surface in order to coat it with the biological elements. This can be done by polylysine, aminosilane, epoxysilane, or nitrocellulose in the case of silicon chips/silica glass. Subsequently, the bound biological agent may also be fixed—for example, by layer by layer deposition of alternatively charged polymer coatings.[38]
Alternatively, three-dimensional lattices (
Another group of hydrogels, which set under conditions suitable for cells or protein, are
Biotransducer
Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are:
- electrochemical biosensors
- optical biosensors
- electronic biosensors
- piezoelectric biosensors
- gravimetric biosensors
- pyroelectric biosensors
- magnetic biosensors
Electrochemical
Electrochemical biosensors are normally based on enzymatic catalysis of a reaction that produces or consumes electrons (such enzymes are rightly called redox enzymes). The sensor substrate usually contains three
Another example, the potentiometric biosensor, (potential produced at zero current) gives a logarithmic response with a high dynamic range. Such biosensors are often made by screen printing the electrode patterns on a plastic substrate, coated with a conducting polymer and then some protein (enzyme or antibody) is attached. They have only two electrodes and are extremely sensitive and robust. They enable the detection of analytes at levels previously only achievable by HPLC and LC/MS and without rigorous sample preparation. All biosensors usually involve minimal sample preparation as the biological sensing component is highly selective for the analyte concerned. The signal is produced by electrochemical and physical changes in the conducting polymer layer due to changes occurring at the surface of the sensor. Such changes can be attributed to ionic strength, pH, hydration and redox reactions, the latter due to the enzyme label turning over a substrate.[44] Field effect transistors, in which the gate region has been modified with an enzyme or antibody, can also detect very low concentrations of various analytes as the binding of the analyte to the gate region of the FET cause a change in the drain-source current.
Impedance spectroscopy based biosensor development has been gaining traction nowadays and many such devices / developments are found in the academia and industry. One such device, based on a 4-electrode electrochemical cell, using a nanoporous alumina membrane, has been shown to detect low concentrations of human alpha thrombin in presence of high background of serum albumin.[45] Also interdigitated electrodes have been used for impedance biosensors.[46]
Ion channel switch
The use of ion channels has been shown to offer highly sensitive detection of target biological molecules.[47] By embedding the ion channels in supported or tethered bilayer membranes (t-BLM) attached to a gold electrode, an electrical circuit is created. Capture molecules such as antibodies can be bound to the ion channel so that the binding of the target molecule controls the ion flow through the channel. This results in a measurable change in the electrical conduction which is proportional to the concentration of the target.
An ion channel switch (ICS) biosensor can be created using gramicidin, a dimeric peptide channel, in a tethered bilayer membrane.[48] One peptide of gramicidin, with attached antibody, is mobile and one is fixed. Breaking the dimer stops the ionic current through the membrane. The magnitude of the change in electrical signal is greatly increased by separating the membrane from the metal surface using a hydrophilic spacer.
Quantitative detection of an extensive class of target species, including proteins, bacteria, drug and toxins has been demonstrated using different membrane and capture configurations.[49][50] The European research project Greensense develops a biosensor to perform quantitative screening of drug-of-abuse such as THC, morphine, and cocaine [51] in saliva and urine.
Reagentless fluorescent biosensor
A reagentless biosensor can monitor a target analyte in a complex biological mixture without additional reagent. Therefore, it can function continuously if immobilized on a solid support. A fluorescent biosensor reacts to the interaction with its target analyte by a change of its fluorescence properties. A Reagentless Fluorescent biosensor (RF biosensor) can be obtained by integrating a biological receptor, which is directed against the target analyte, and a solvatochromic fluorophore, whose emission properties are sensitive to the nature of its local environment, in a single macromolecule. The fluorophore transduces the recognition event into a measurable optical signal. The use of extrinsic fluorophores, whose emission properties differ widely from those of the intrinsic fluorophores of proteins, tryptophan and tyrosine, enables one to immediately detect and quantify the analyte in complex biological mixtures. The integration of the fluorophore must be done in a site where it is sensitive to the binding of the analyte without perturbing the affinity of the receptor.
Antibodies and artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP) are well suited to provide the recognition module of RF biosensors since they can be directed against any antigen (see the paragraph on bioreceptors). A general approach to integrate a solvatochromic fluorophore in an AgBP when the atomic structure of the complex with its antigen is known, and thus transform it into a RF biosensor, has been described.[20] A residue of the AgBP is identified in the neighborhood of the antigen in their complex. This residue is changed into a cysteine by site-directed mutagenesis. The fluorophore is chemically coupled to the mutant cysteine. When the design is successful, the coupled fluorophore does not prevent the binding of the antigen, this binding shields the fluorophore from the solvent, and it can be detected by a change of fluorescence. This strategy is also valid for antibody fragments.[52][53]
However, in the absence of specific structural data, other strategies must be applied. Antibodies and artificial families of AgBPs are constituted by a set of hypervariable (or randomized) residue positions, located in a unique sub-region of the protein, and supported by a constant polypeptide scaffold. The residues that form the binding site for a given antigen, are selected among the hypervariable residues. It is possible to transform any AgBP of these families into a RF biosensor, specific of the target antigen, simply by coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore to one of the hypervariable residues that have little or no importance for the interaction with the antigen, after changing this residue into cysteine by mutagenesis. More specifically, the strategy consists in individually changing the residues of the hypervariable positions into cysteine at the genetic level, in chemically coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore with the mutant cysteine, and then in keeping the resulting conjugates that have the highest sensitivity (a parameter that involves both affinity and variation of fluorescence signal).[21] This approach is also valid for families of antibody fragments.[54]
A posteriori studies have shown that the best reagentless fluorescent biosensors are obtained when the fluorophore does not make non-covalent interactions with the surface of the bioreceptor, which would increase the background signal, and when it interacts with a binding pocket at the surface of the target antigen.[55] The RF biosensors that are obtained by the above methods, can function and detect target analytes inside living cells.[56]
Magnetic biosensors
Magnetic biosensors utilize paramagnetic or supra-paramagnetic particles, or crystals, to detect biological interactions. Examples could be coil-inductance, resistance, or other magnetic properties. It is common to use magnetic nano or microparticles. In the surface of such particles are the bioreceptors, that can be DNA (complementary to a sequence or aptamers) antibodies, or others. The binding of the bioreceptor will affect some of the magnetic particle properties that can be measured by AC susceptometry,[57] a Hall Effect sensor,[58] a giant magnetoresistance device,[59] or others.
Others
Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) is nowadays a leading technique in biosensors.[60][61][62] Since the excited species are produced with an electrochemical stimulus rather than with a light excitation source, ECL displays improved signal-to-noise ratio compared to photoluminescence, with minimized effects due to light scattering and luminescence background. In particular, coreactant ECL operating in buffered aqueous solution in the region of positive potentials (oxidative-reduction mechanism) definitively boosted ECL for immunoassay, as confirmed by many research applications and, even more, by the presence of important companies which developed commercial hardware for high throughput immunoassays analysis in a market worth billions of dollars each year.
Thermometric biosensors are rare.
Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET)
The
The first BioFET was the
By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the
Placement of biosensors
The appropriate placement of biosensors depends on their field of application, which may roughly be divided into biotechnology, agriculture, food technology and biomedicine.
In biotechnology, analysis of the chemical composition of
In medical applications biosensors are generally categorized as in vitro and in vivo systems. An in vitro, biosensor measurement takes place in a test tube, a culture dish, a microtiter plate or elsewhere outside a living organism. The sensor uses a bioreceptor and transducer as outlined above. An example of an in vitro biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for blood glucose monitoring. There is a challenge to create a biosensor that operates by the principle of point-of-care testing, i.e. at the location where the test is needed.[72][73] Development of wearable biosensors is among such studies.[74] The elimination of lab testing can save time and money. An application of a POCT biosensor can be for the testing of HIV in areas where it is difficult for patients to be tested. A biosensor can be sent directly to the location and a quick and easy test can be used.
An in vivo biosensor is an implantable device that operates inside the body. Of course, biosensor implants have to fulfill the strict regulations on sterilization in order to avoid an initial inflammatory response after implantation. The second concern relates to the long-term biocompatibility, i.e. the unharmful interaction with the body environment during the intended period of use.[76] Another issue that arises is failure. If there is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing additional surgery. An example for application of an in vivo biosensor would be the insulin monitoring within the body, which is not available yet.
Most advanced biosensor implants have been developed for the continuous monitoring of glucose.
Biosensors can also be integrated into mobile phone systems, making them user-friendly and accessible to a large number of users.[79]
Applications
There are many potential applications of biosensors of various types. The main requirements for a biosensor approach to be valuable in terms of research and commercial applications are the identification of a target molecule, availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable portable detection systems to be preferred to sensitive laboratory-based techniques in some situations. Some examples are:
- glucose monitoring in diabetes patients, other medical health related targets,
- environmental applications, e.g. the detection of pesticides, detection and determining of organophosphate, and river water contaminants, such as heavy metal ions,[80]
- remote sensing of airborne bacteria, e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities,
- remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,[81]
- detection of pathogens,
- determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation,
- routine analytical measurement of ,
- determination of growth promoters, particularly meat and honey,
- drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds,
- protein engineering in biosensors,[82] and
- detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins.
A common example of a commercial biosensor is the
A
Glucose monitoring
Commercially available glucose monitors rely on
Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor
The interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS) is based on the principles of
Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence protein microarray variability.[86] Briefly, the variation in fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays.[87] To correct for any variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired in the label-free modality.[87] IRIS has also been adapted to perform single nanoparticle counting by simply switching the low magnification objective used for label-free biomass quantification to a higher objective magnification.[88][89] This modality enables size discrimination in complex human biological samples. Monroe et al. used IRIS to quantify protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and determined allergen sensitization in characterized human blood samples using zero sample processing.[90] Other practical uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.[91]
Food analysis
There are several applications of biosensors in food analysis.[92][93][94][95] In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal.
A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the detection and measurement of small molecules such as
Detection/monitoring of pollutants
Biosensors could be used to monitor air, water, and soil pollutants such as pesticides, potentially carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic substances and endocrine disrupting chemicals.[96][97]
For example, bionanotechnologists developed a viable biosensor, ROSALIND 2.0, that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants.[98][99]
Ozone measurement
Because
Deneb Karentz, a researcher at the Laboratory of Radio-biology and Environmental Health (University of California, San Francisco) has devised a simple method for measuring ultraviolet penetration and intensity. Working in the Antarctic Ocean, she submerged to various depths thin plastic bags containing special strains of E. coli that are almost totally unable to repair ultraviolet radiation damage to their DNA. Bacterial death rates in these bags were compared with rates in unexposed control bags of the same organism. The bacterial "biosensors" revealed constant significant ultraviolet damage at depths of 10 m and frequently at 20 and 30 m. Karentz plans additional studies of how ultraviolet may affect seasonal plankton blooms (growth spurts) in the oceans.[100]
Metastatic cancer cell detection
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another via either the circulatory system or lymphatic system.[101] Unlike radiology imaging tests (mammograms), which send forms of energy (x-rays, magnetic fields, etc.) through the body to only take interior pictures, biosensors have the potential to directly test the malignant power of the tumor. The combination of a biological and detector element allows for a small sample requirement, a compact design, rapid signals, rapid detection, high selectivity and high sensitivity for the analyte being studied. Compared to the usual radiology imaging tests biosensors have the advantage of not only finding out how far cancer has spread and checking if treatment is effective but also are cheaper, more efficient (in time, cost and productivity) ways to assess metastaticity in early stages of cancer.
Biological engineering researchers have created oncological biosensors for breast cancer.[102] Breast cancer is the leading common cancer among women worldwide.[103] An example would be a transferrin- quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). As a biosensor, quartz crystal microbalances produce oscillations in the frequency of the crystal's standing wave from an alternating potential to detect nano-gram mass changes. These biosensors are specifically designed to interact and have high selectivity for receptors on cell (cancerous and normal) surfaces. Ideally, this provides a quantitative detection of cells with this receptor per surface area instead of a qualitative picture detection given by mammograms.
Seda Atay, a biotechnology researcher at Hacettepe University, experimentally observed this specificity and selectivity between a QCM and
Additionally, in the last years, significant attentions have been focused to detect the biomarkers of lung cancer without biopsy. In this regard, biosensors are very attractive and applicable tools for providing rapid, sensitive, specific, stable, cost-effective and non-invasive detections for early lung cancer diagnosis. Thus, cancer biosensors consisting of specific biorecognition molecules such as antibodies, complementary nucleic acid probes or other immobilized biomolecules on a transducer surface. The biorecognition molecules interact specifically with the biomarkers (targets) and the generated biological responses are converted by the transducer into a measurable analytical signal. Depending on the type of biological response, various transducers are utilized in the fabrication of cancer biosensors such as electrochemical, optical and mass-based transducers.[104]
Pathogen detection
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2021) |
Biosensors could be used for the detection of pathogenic organisms.[97]
Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of SARS-CoV-2 – that are wearable have been developed – such as face masks with built-in tests.[105][106] See also: COVID-19 public transport R&D
New types of biosensor-chips could enable novel methods "such as drone-deployed pathogen sensors actively surveying air or wastewater". Protein-binding aptamers could be used for testing for infectious disease pathogens.[107] Systems of electronic skins (or robot skins) with built-in biosensors (or chemical sensors) and human-machine interfaces may enable wearable as well as remote sensed device- or robotic-sensing of pathogens (as well as of several hazardous materials and tactile perceptions).[108][additional citation(s) needed]
Types
Optical biosensors
Many optical biosensors are based on the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) techniques.[109][110] This utilises a property of gold and other materials (metals);[111] specifically that a thin layer of gold on a high refractive index glass surface can absorb laser light, producing electron waves (surface plasmons) on the gold surface. This occurs only at a specific angle and wavelength of incident light and is highly dependent on the surface of the gold, such that binding of a target analyte to a receptor on the gold surface produces a measurable signal.
Surface plasmon resonance sensors operate using a sensor chip consisting of a plastic cassette supporting a glass plate, one side of which is coated with a microscopic layer of gold. This side contacts the optical detection apparatus of the instrument. The opposite side is then contacted with a microfluidic flow system. The contact with the flow system creates channels across which reagents can be passed in solution. This side of the glass sensor chip can be modified in a number of ways, to allow easy attachment of molecules of interest. Normally it is coated in carboxymethyl dextran or similar compound.
The refractive index at the flow side of the chip surface has a direct influence on the behavior of the light reflected off the gold side. Binding to the flow side of the chip has an effect on the
Light of a fixed wavelength is reflected off the gold side of the chip at the angle of total internal reflection, and detected inside the instrument. The angle of incident light is varied in order to match the evanescent wave propagation rate with the propagation rate of the surface plasmon polaritons.[112] This induces the evanescent wave to penetrate through the glass plate and some distance into the liquid flowing over the surface.
Other optical biosensors are mainly based on changes in absorbance or fluorescence of an appropriate indicator compound and do not need a total internal reflection geometry. For example, a fully operational prototype device detecting casein in milk has been fabricated. The device is based on detecting changes in absorption of a gold layer.[113] A widely used research tool, the micro-array, can also be considered a biosensor.
Biological biosensors
Biological biosensors, also known as optogenetic sensors, often incorporate a genetically modified form of a native protein or enzyme. The protein is configured to detect a specific analyte and the ensuing signal is read by a detection instrument such as a fluorometer or luminometer. An example of a recently developed biosensor is one for detecting cytosolic concentration of the analyte cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), a second messenger involved in cellular signaling triggered by ligands interacting with receptors on the cell membrane.[114] Similar systems have been created to study cellular responses to native ligands or xenobiotics (toxins or small molecule inhibitors). Such "assays" are commonly used in drug discovery development by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Most cAMP assays in current use require lysis of the cells prior to measurement of cAMP. A live-cell biosensor for cAMP can be used in non-lysed cells with the additional advantage of multiple reads to study the kinetics of receptor response.
Nanobiosensors use an immobilized bioreceptor probe that is selective for target analyte molecules. Nanomaterials are exquisitely sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Nanoscale materials demonstrate unique properties. Their large surface area to volume ratio can achieve rapid and low cost reactions, using a variety of designs.[115]
Other evanescent wave biosensors have been commercialised using waveguides where the propagation constant through the waveguide is changed by the absorption of molecules to the waveguide surface. One such example,
Electronic nose devices
Recently, arrays of many different detector molecules have been applied in so called
DNA biosensors
DNA can be the analyte of a biosensor, being detected through specific means, but it can also be used as part of a biosensor or, theoretically, even as a whole biosensor.
Many techniques exist to detect DNA, which is usually a means to detect organisms that have that particular DNA. DNA sequences can also be used as described above. But more forward-looking approaches exist, where DNA can be synthesized to hold enzymes in a biological, stable gel.[120] Other applications are the design of aptamers, sequences of DNA that have a specific shape to bind a desired molecule. The most innovative processes use DNA origami for this, creating sequences that fold in a predictable structure that is useful for detection.[121][122]
Scientists have built prototype sensors to detect DNA of animals from sucked in air, "airborne eDNA".[123]
"Nanoantennas" made out of DNA – a novel type of nano-scale optical antenna – can be attached to proteins and produce a signal via fluorescence when these perform their biological functions, in particular for distinct conformational changes.[124][125]
Graphene-based biosensor
Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon-based substance with superior optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The ability to absorb and immobilize a variety of proteins, particularly some with carbon ring structures, has proven graphene to be an excellent candidate as a biosensor transducer. As a result, various graphene-based biosensors have been explored and developed in recent times.[14] [126] Graphene has been employed as a biosensor in various formats especially electrochemical sensors and field effect transistors. Amongst them graphene field effect transistors (GFETs) especially have shown excellent performance as rapid point of care (PoC) diagnostics as observed through a surge in number of research articles reporting COVID-19 diagnostics using GFETs. They have been reported to have some of the lowest limit of detection whilst also having a rapid turn around time of a few seconds along with multiplexing abilities.[127] These capabilities allow for immediate disease detection especially in cases with overlapping symptoms which are hard to distinguish at the outset, thus allowing for better patient outcomes especially in resource strained medical settings.
See also
- Bioactive paper
- Bioelectronics
- Biointerface
- Biomarker
- DNA field-effect transistor
- Dual-polarization interferometry
- Electro-switchable biosurfaces
- Electrochemiluminescence
- Impedance microbiology
- Lanthanide probes
- Magnotech
- Microphysiometry
- Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance
- Nanobiotechnology
- Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity
- Plasmon
- Small molecule sensors
- Surface plasmon resonance
- Bio-FET
- Nanopore
References
- ^ .
- ISBN 978-0198547242.
- ISBN 9781118354230.
- PMID 31094032.
- PMID 27879858.
- PMID 36131986.
- ^ A. Hierlemann, O. Brand, C. Hagleitner, H. Baltes, "Microfabrication techniques for chemical/biosensors", Proceedings of the IEEE 91 (6), 2003, 839–863.
- ^ A. Hierlemann, H. Baltes, "CMOS-based chemical microsensors", The Analyst 128 (1), 2003, pp. 15–28.
- ^ "Biosensors Primer". Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
- PMID 28456344.
- PMID 32264431.
- S2CID 23807719.
- PMID 26394608.
- ^ S2CID 245069669.
- ^ S2CID 36791337.
- PMID 32357206.
- PMID 27155114.
- PMID 25931178.
- PMID 25033247.
- ^ PMID 19945965.
- ^ PMID 21565483.
- S2CID 20186661.
- PMID 94999.
- PMID 10994982.
- PMID 36131986.
- S2CID 4953042.
- PMID 34532522.
- PMID 34184101.
- S2CID 5190250.
- PMID 26918228.
- ^ "Home - GLAM Project - Glass-Laser Multiplexed Biosensor". GLAM Project - Glass-Laser Multiplexed Biosensor.
- PMID 10643557.
- PMID 11355867.
- PMID 12604263.
- PMID 11679280.
- PMID 18495408.
- S2CID 21147572.
- S2CID 39552342.
- PMID 17291744.
- PMID 10565275.
- PMID 18304798.
- ^ Bourzac, Katherine. "Mimicking Body Biosensors". technologyreview.com.
- PMID 16404758.
- ^ "Multivitamine Kaufberatung: So finden Sie das beste Präparat". Archived from the original on 18 December 2014.
- PMID 30396022.
- .
- S2CID 12490715.
- S2CID 4348659.
- PMID 18054481.
- S2CID 4957312.
- ^ "Greensense Projekt: Cannabis-Tests und Drogen Screening". greensense-project.eu.
- PMID 12051849.
- S2CID 25795463.
- PMID 12547199.
- PMID 27448945.
- PMID 23790495.
- PMID 24174315.
- PMID 25308989.
- PMID 28374833.
- S2CID 218977697.
- PMID 20636067.
- hdl:11585/591485.
- ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
- S2CID 55557610.
- S2CID 33342483.
- ^ ISSN 0250-6874. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
- . Retrieved 13 May 2016.
- PMID 5441220.
- ^ PMID 12375833.
- ^ US Department of Health and Human Services; Food and Drug Administration; Center for Drug Evaluation and Research; Center for Veterinary Medicine; Office of Regulatory Affairs, eds. (September 2004), Guidance for Industry: PAT — A Framework for Innovative Pharmaceutical Development, Manufacturing, and Quality Assurance (PDF)
- ^ Pasco, Neil; Glithero, Nick. Lactose at-line biosensor 1st viable industrial biosensor? "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) (accessed 30 January 2013). - S2CID 32776079.
- PMID 29770813.
- .
- ^ PMID 30404356.
- PMID 22516142.
- PMID 20668297.
- PMID 24906080.
- PMID 27836593.
- ^ Saharudin Haron Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine and Asim K. Ray (2006) Optical biodetection of cadmium and lead ions in water. Medical Engineering and Physics, 28 (10). pp. 978–981.
- ^ a b "MolluSCAN eye". MolluSCAN eye. CNRS & Université de Bordeaux. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
- PMID 17960341.
- .
- PMID 20980139.
- PMID 23547938.
- PMID 24271115.
- ^ PMID 22060132.
- PMID 22214976.
- ^ C. A. Lopez, G. G. Daaboul, R. S. Vedula, E. Ozkumur, D. A. Bergstein, T. W. Geisbert, H. Fawcett, B. B. Goldberg, J. H. Connor, and M. S. Ünlü, "Label-free multiplexed virus detection using spectral reflectance imaging," Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2011
- PMID 23469929.
- PMID 20964282.
- PMID 35335800.
- S2CID 219902328.
- PMID 34617152.
- S2CID 257603757.
- PMID 29244756.
- ^ S2CID 27115648.
- ^ "DNA computer could tell you if your drinking water is contaminated". New Scientist. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
- PMID 35177837.
- ^ J. G. Black,"Principles and explorations", edition 5th.
- PMID 21376230.
- ^ .
- ^ Nordqvist, Christian. "Breast Cancer Cancer / Oncology Women's Health / Gynecology Breast Cancer: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments." Medical News Today. N.p., 5 May 2016. Web.
- PMID 31514848.
- ^ "Face masks that can diagnose COVID-19". medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
- S2CID 235673261.
- PMID 35074874.
- PMID 35648844.
- PMID 24549396. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
- .
- PMID 27365039.
- S2CID 14370505.
- .
- PMID 18570354.
- S2CID 116936804.
- S2CID 41944216.
- PMID 21503017.
- ^ "UCSB sensor sniffs explosives through microfluidics, might replace Rover at the airport (video)". Microfluidic Solutions. 8 December 2012. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014.
- ^ "Wasp Hound". Science Central. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
- PMID 28239729.
- S2CID 210753045.
- S2CID 206719944.
- ^ "Scientists vacuumed animal DNA out of thin air for the first time". Science News. 18 January 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
- ^ "Chemists use DNA to build the world's tiniest antenna". University of Montreal. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
- S2CID 245593311.
- PMID 35494759.
- PMID 37703454.
Bibliography
- Frieder Scheller & Florian Schubert (1989). Biosensoren. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. ISBN 978-3-05-500659-3.
- Massimo Grattarola & Giuseppe Massobrio (1998). Bioelectronics Handbook - MOSFETs, Biosensors and Neurons. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 978-0070031746.
External links
- Scratching at the surface of biosensors – an Instant Insight discussing how surface chemistry lets porous silicon biosensors fulfil their promise from the Royal Society of Chemistry