Donghu people
Dates | 600-150 BCE |
---|---|
Preceded by | Upper Xiajiadian culture |
Followed by | Xiongnu Yan Kingdom (Han dynasty) |
Donghu (
Name
Nomenclature
The
The term hu 胡 was used to denote non-Han Chinese populations. It is, rather unsatisfactorily, commonly translated as 'barbarian'. While sometimes it was used in this general way to describe people of non-Han descent, and carried the same negative overtones of the English term, this was not always the case. Most frequently, it was used to denote people, usually of Caucasoid or partial Caucasoid appearance, living to the north and west of China. (2009:453)
In 307 BCE, the 胡
The peoples categorized as the Five Barbarians, or "Five Hu", were the
The usual English translation of Dōnghú is "Eastern Barbarians" (e.g., Watson, di Cosmo, Pulleyblank, and Yu), and the partial translation "Eastern Hu" is occasionally used (Pulleyblank). Note that "Eastern Barbarians" is also a translation for Dōngyì 東夷, which refers to "ancient peoples in eastern China, Korea, Japan, etc."[clarification needed]
Chinese Sinocentrism differentiates the Huáxià 華夏 "Chinese" and the Yì 夷 "barbarians, non-Chinese, foreigner": this is referred to as the Huá–Yì distinction. Many names besides Hu originally had pejorative "barbarian" meanings, for instance Nanman 南蠻 ("southern barbarians") and Beidi 北狄 ("northern barbarians"). Edwin G. Pulleyblank explains:
At the dawn of history we find the Chinese, self-identified by such terms as Hsia and Hua, surrounded and interspersed by other peoples with whom they were frequently in conflict and whom they typically looked down upon as inferior beings in the same way the Hellenes looked down on the barbaroi and, indeed, as human we-groups have always looked down on their neighbors.[20]
The historian Nicola di Cosmo concludes:
We can thus reasonably say that, by the end of the fourth century B.C., the term "Hu" applied to various ethnic groups (tribes, groups of tribes, and even states) speaking different languages and generally found living scattered across a wide territory. Their fragmentation, however, could be turned, when the need arose, into a superior form of political organization (a "state"). This explains why hu appears often preceded by a qualifier that we may take for a specific ethnic group, as with the Lin Hu and the Tung Hu. Whether or not it had originally been an ethnonym, such a designation had been lost by the Warring States period.[21]
In modern Standard Chinese usage hú has lost its original meaning although it still appears in words like èrhú 二胡 (lit. "two foreign") "Chinese two-string fiddle", hútáo 胡桃 ("foreign peach") "walnut", and húluóbō 胡萝卜 ("foreign radish") "carrot".
Etymology
The modern pronunciation Dōnghú differs from the Old Chinese pronunciation, which roughly dates from the Warring States Period (476–221 BCE) when Donghu was first recorded. Old Chinese reconstructions of Dōnghú include *Tûngɣâg,[23] *Tungg'o,[24] *Tewnggaɣ,[25] *Tongga,[26] and *Tôŋgâ > *Toŋgɑ.[27] William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014)[28] reconstruct the Old Chinese ancestor of 胡 Hú as *[g]ˤa. Recently, Christopher Atwood reconstructs a foreign ethnonym *ga, which was borrowed into Old Chinese as 胡 *gâ (> hú), while an i-suffixed derivative of *ga underlies two Middle Chinese transcriptions: namely,
- *Bo-lâk Khėi (> Bùluò-Jī) (步落稽), based on the ethnonym of a people of Xiongnu, Mountain Rong or Red Di origins[29] in Northern Shaanxi-Shanxi-Ordos; as well as
- *Gʰiei, based on the ethnonym of the Mongolic-speaking Xī (奚), whom Arab geographers knew as Qāy.[30]
The etymology of ethnonym *ga (> 胡 OC *gâ > Ch. hú) is unknown.[31] As for *ga's possibly derivation Qay: Golden (2003) proposes several Mongolic etymologies: ɣai "trouble, misfortune, misery", χai "interjection of grief", χai "to seek", χai "to hew", albeit none compelling.[32][33]
Some dictionaries and scholars (e.g. Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat) confuse Dōnghú 東胡 with Tungusic peoples, Tonggu 通古. Russian Mongolist Lydia Viktorova states that:
This is due to the insufficient amount of materials and partly due to the mistakes made. For example, the phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus, made at the beginning of the 19th century by Abel-Rémusat only on the principle of sound similarity between Donghu and Tungus. This led to the fact that for a long time all the descendants of the Donghu were considered the ancestors of the Tungus."[34]
This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. This is a vulgar error with no real foundation."[35]
History
Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu was the earliest to evolve into a state of civilization and first developed bronze technology. Their culture was associated with the Upper Xiajiadian culture, characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art.[39] Through the use of cavalry and bronze weaponry in warfare, the Donghu apparently dominated over the Xiongnu on their west.[40][41][42][43] Although "Upper Xiajiadian" is indeed frequently attributed to the Donghu, such attribution remains uncertain given the lack of details in Chinese sources about what the Donghu exactly were, beyond a name (Donghu, Eastern Hu, ie "Eastern mounted nomads") and the account of their destruction by the Xiongnu.[44]
The (ca. 109–91 BCE)
Thus at this time there lived in the region west of
In 307 BC
The Book of Jin, published in 648, linked the Donghu and their Xianbei descendants to the Youxiong lineage (有熊氏),[51] associated with the Yellow Emperor[52] and possibly named after the Yellow Emperor's "hereditary principality".[53] However, many non-Han Chinese rulers were claimed to be the Yellow Emperor's descendants, for individual and national prestige.[54][55]
Chinese historian Yu Ying-shih describes the Donghu.
The Tung-hu peoples were probably a tribal federation founded by a number of nomadic peoples, including the Wu-huan and Hsien-pi. After its conquest of the Hsiung-nu, the federation apparently ceased to exist. Throughout the Han period, no trace can be found of activities of the Tung-hu as a political entity.[18]
Di Cosmo says the Chinese considered the Hu 胡 as "a new type of foreigner", and believes, "This term, whatever its origin, soon came to indicate an 'anthropological type' rather than a specific group or tribe, which the records allow us to identify as early steppe nomads. The Hu were the source of the introduction of cavalry in China."[56]
Pulleyblank cites Paul Pelliot that the Donghu, Xianbei, and Wuhuan were "proto-Mongols".
The Eastern Hu, mentioned in the Shih-chi along with the Woods Hu and the Lou-fan as barbarians to the north of Chao in the fourth century B.C., appear again as one of the first peoples whom the Hsiung-nu conquered in establishing their empire. Toward the end of the Former Han, as the Hsiung-nu empire was weakening through internal dissension, the Eastern Hu became rebellious. From then on they played an increasingly prominent role in Chinese frontier strategy as a force to play off against the Hsiung-nu. Two major divisions are distinguished, the Hsien-pei to the north and the Wu-huan to the south. By the end of the first century B.C. these more specific names had supplanted the older generic term.[58]
Pulleyblank also writes that although
there is now archaeological evidence of the spread of pastoral nomadism based on horse riding from Central Asia into Mongolia and farther east in the first half of the first millennium B.C.E., as far as we have evidence it did not impinge on Chinese consciousness until the northward push of the state of Zhao 趙 to the edge of the steppe in present Shanxi province shortly before the end of the fifth century B.C.E. brought them into contact with a new type of horse-riding “barbarian” that they called Hu 胡. … In Han times the term Hu was applied to steppe nomads in general but especially to the Xiongnu who had become the dominant power in the steppe. Earlier it had referred to a specific proto-Mongolian people, now differentiated as the Eastern Hu 東胡, from whom the Xianbei 鮮卑 and the Wuhuan 烏桓 later emerged.[59]
Legacy
The Dōnghú later divided into the
In the past, scholars such as
A genetic study published in the
Ethnic origins
The ethnic composition of the Donghu people remains unclear. It is suggested that the majority was of
While often being referred as tribal confederation, they may rather be an only loosely united group of nomadic tribes "that occupied territories between the Mongolian steppes and the Great Xing'an Mountains of China".[75]
Genetics
A genetic study published in the
Genetic data support a close genetic relationship between the Donghu, the ancient Jinggouzi people, and the Xianbei. The closest modern extant people to the historical Donghu are the Oroqen people of Northern China.[73]
See also
History of Manchuria |
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References
- ^ a b Sima Qian (author); Watson, Burton (translator), 1993. Shiji, "vol. 110 - Account of the Xiongnu"; p. 132.
- ^ Origins of Minority Ethnic Groups in Heilongjiang Archived March 22, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Liang (1992) and DeFrancis (2003).
- at our borders. Yet we have no strong army to help us, surely we will lose our country. What is to be done?"
- Stratagems of the Warring States, "King Wuling spends his day in idleness", quote: "自常山以至代、上黨,東有燕、東胡之境,西有樓煩、秦、韓之邊,而無騎射之備。" Jennifer Dodgson's translation: "From Mount Chang to Dai and Shangdang, our lands border Yan and the Donghu in the east, and to the west we have the Loufan and shared borders with Qin and Han. Nevertheless, we have no mounted archers ready for action."
- ^ a b Pulleyblank E. G. (1994) “Ji Hu: Indigenous Inhabitants of Shaanbei and Western Shanxi,” in Edward H. Kaplan, ed., Opuscula Altaica: Essays presented in honor of Henry Schwarz. ed. by. Bellingham: Western Washington University. pp. 518-519 of 499-531
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania By Barbara A. West [1]
- ^ Shiji "Ch. 110 Account of the Xiongnu"
- ^ Zhouli (Rites of Zhou) "Dongguan Kaogong Ji (Winter Office(r)s: Records on the Examination of Craftsmanship)" 4 quote: 「胡無弓車。……胡之無弓車也,非無弓車也,夫人而能為弓車也。」Translation by Jun (2013): "Among the nomads Hu there are no special craftsmen of bow and chariot but all the men there are proficient in the art."
- ^ Jun Wenren (translator) (2013) Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology: Translation and Annotation of the Kaogong Ji (the Artificers' Records). New York: Routledge. p. 3
- ^ a b Bi, Zhicheng (2019). "Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition" (PDF). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. 368: 175–177.
- ^ a b A History of Chinese Civilization, Jacques Gernet, Cambridge University Press 1996 P.186-87
- ^ Peter Van Der Veer, "III. Contexts of Cosmopolitanism" in Steven Vertovec, Robin Cohen eds., Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and Practice Oxford University Press 2002 p. 200-01
- ^ Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87-104.
- ^ Dorothy Wong, Chinese Steles: Pre-Buddhist and Buddhist Use of a Symbolic Form University of Hawaii Press P.44
- ^ (Chinese) 段渝, 先秦巴蜀地区百濮和氐羌的来源 Archived 2018-09-08 at the Wayback Machine 2006-11-30
- ^ Guo Ji Zhongguo Yu Yan Xue Ping Lun, Volume 1, Issue 1, J. Benjamins 1996. page 7.
- ^ a b Yu (1986), p. 436.
- ^ Hao and Qimudedaoerji (2007), p. 17.
- ^ Pulleyblank (1983), p. 411.
- ^ Di Cosmo (2002), p. 130.
- ^ Ban, Lin (2022). ""Shelter My Soul with Your Body" – A Burial Custom Influenced by Shamanism: A Case of Covering a Dead Face with the Right Ribs of a Local Sheep in Inner Mongolia, China" (PDF).
The most typical early form of metal mask was a combination of sackcloth, copper clasps and mussels found in the Zhoujiadi cemetery in Aohan Banner, Inner Mongolia, of the Xiajiadian upper culture (Yang and Gu 1984). (...) Besides, both Zhoujiadi M45 and Iheura M2 can be identified as remains of the Donghu clan, with Zhoujiadi M45 considered to be an ancestor of the Donghu clan...
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(help) - ^ Dong 1948:?.
- ^ Karlgren 1957:303, 34.
- ^ Zhou 1972:?.
- ^ Baxter 1992:754, 763.
- ^ Schuesler 2007:215, 281.
- ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.
- Liu Yuanhai's five tribes. Or said [to be] successors of Mountain Rong [or] Red Di".
- ^ Atwood, Christopher P. "The Qai, the Khongai, and the Names of the Xiōngnú" International Journal of Eurasian Studies II. p. 47-53
- ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 281
- ^ Golden, Peter B. (2006). "Cumanica V: The Basmils and Qipčaqs" in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 15: notes 24–25. p. 17 of 13-42
- ^ Golden, P.B. (2003) "Cumanica II: The Olberli (Olperli): The Fortunes and Misfortunes of an Inner Asian Nomadic Clan" in Nomads and their neighbours in the Russian Steppe note. 49 p. 17 of 5-29
- ^ a b Viktorova, Lydia Leonidovna (1980). Mongols: Origin of the People and Source of Culture (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. p. 183.
Это отчасти связано с недостаточным количеством материалов, отчасти - с допущенными ошибками. Например, фонетическое отождествление древнего народа дунху (восточные ху) с тунгусами, сделанное в начале XIX в. Абелем Ремюса лишь на принципе звукового сходства дунху - тунгус, привело к тому, что всех потомков дунху долгое время считали предками тунгусов.
- ^ Pulleyblank (1983), p. 452.
- .
- ^ "Certificate".
- ISBN 978-981-32-9154-6.
- ^ Lin (2007)[page needed]
- ^ Ma (1962)[page needed]
- ^ Liu (1994)[page needed]
- ^ Wang (2007)[page needed]
- ^ Lü (2002), pp. 15–16.
- ISSN 0254-9948.
The study of Upper Xiaiadianis hampered by the small number of well-reported excavations, the conditions of the tombs themselves, and by confusion concerning the nature of the culture and its dating. In general,"Upper Xiajiadian" is considered to refer to a nomadic culture,frequently attributed to the Donghu.(p.4) The attribution of any non-Chinese culture to a name provided by early Chinese texts is risky. Unless material evidence appears to coincide with written evidence (assuming there is indeed written evidence other then the notation of a name), we cannot be sure such attribution is justified. In the case of the Donghu, we have scant textual evidence.(p.5) In any case, attributing Upper Xiajiadian to the Donghu compounds the problems the material remains themselves present. At this time,I see no benefit in making any specific attribution (p.6)
- ^ Watson (1993), p. 134.
- ^ Watson (1993), p. 135.
- ^ Ma (1962)[page needed]
- ^ Liu (1994)[page needed]
- ^ Wang (2007)[page needed]
- ^ Lü (2002)[page needed]
- ^ Fang Xuanling et al., Jinshu, vol. 108 Murong Hui text: "慕容廆,字弈洛瑰,昌黎棘城鮮卑人也。其先有熊氏之苗裔,世居北夷,邑于紫蒙之野,號曰東胡。" tr.: "Murong Hui, courtesy name Yìluòguī, a Xianbei man from the Jí Citadel, Chānglí. He/They descended from the Youxiong lineage in former times; for generations [they] had been dwelling [among] the Northern Yi, [their] settlement in the wilderness of Zimeng, [their] appellation Eastern Hu."
- Shiji, vol. 1 [2] txt: "自黃帝至舜、禹,皆同姓而異其國號,以章明德。故黃帝爲有熊,..." tr.: "From the Yellow Emperor to Shùn, [and then] Yǔ, all [had] the same tribal surname(姓) yet [each] called [his] nation differently; [each] used [a different appellation] to stamp [his] bright virtue; therefore, the Yellow Emperor['s nation] was Youxiong..."
- ^ Giles, Herbert Allen (1898), A Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 338 cited in Unschuld, Paul U.; Tessenow, Hermann, eds. (2011), Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic – Basic Questions, 2 volumes, p.5
- ^ Lewis, Mark Edward (2009), China's Cosmopolitan Empire: the Tang Dynasty, Harvard University Press. p. 202
- ^ Abramson, Mark Samuel (2008), Ethnic Identity in Tang China, University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 154
- ^ Di Cosmo (1999), pp. 951–52.
- ^ Several photographs and descriptions in: 徐, 龙国 (2017). "山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像再研究" (PDF). 美术研究 (ART RESEARCH).
上述石雕像为胡人形象,对此学者们均无异议。胡人是我国古代中原汉人对北方和西方异族的通称。在汉人的认知领域,胡人的概念比较模糊,大致也有个变化的过程。先秦时的胡,专指匈奴,汉晋时期泛指匈奴、鲜卑、羯、氐、羌,"胡人"的范围已由北方逐渐扩大到西部族群。
"The above-mentioned stone statues are images of Hu people, and scholars have no objection to this. Hu people are the general name given by the Han people in the Central Plains of our country to the foreign ethnic groups in the north and west in ancient China. In the cognitive field of Han people, the concept of Hu people is relatively vague, and it has a tendency to change with time. The Hu in the pre-Qin period refers specifically to the Xiongnu, but in the Han and Jin dynasties generally Hu refers to the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang. The scope of "Hu people" also expanded from the north to the west."
山东发现的这种高鼻深目、头戴尖帽的胡人形象,很可能是与斯基泰人文化有关的某些白种民族,并推测可能是月氏或早于月氏的民族
"The image of a barbarian with a high nose, deep eyes, and a pointed hat found in Shandong is likely to be some white ethnic group related to the Scythian culture, it is also speculated that it may be the Yuezhi or an ethnic group earlier than the Yuezhi." - ^ Pulleyblank (1983), p. 452
- ^ Pulleyblank (2000), p 20.
- ^ a b New Book of Tang vol. 219 "奚亦東胡種, 為匈奴所破, 保烏丸山. 漢曹操斬其帥蹋頓蓋其後也." tr. "The Xi are also a Donghu race. Defeated by the Xiongnu, their refuge was Wuwan mountains. During Han time, Cao Cao slew their leader Tadun. [Xi] are probably their descendants"
- Book of Later Han "Vol. 90 Accounts of the Wuhuan & Xianbei - Xianbei" quote: "鮮卑者,亦東胡之支也,別依鮮卑山,故因號焉。其言語習俗與烏桓同。…… 漢初,亦為冒頓所破,遠竄遼東塞外,與烏桓相接,未常通中國焉。" Xu (2005)'s translation: "The Xianbei who were a branch of the Donghu, relied upon the Xianbei Mountains. Therefore, they were called the Xianbei. [...] At the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), (they) were defeated by Maodun, and then fled in disorder to Liaodong beyond the northern border of China Proper ..."
- ^ a b Xu 2005, p. 24.
- Suishu vol. 84"奚本曰庫莫奚東部胡之種" tr. "The Xi were originally called the Kumo Xi. They are a race of Eastern Hu"
- ^ New Book of Tang "Vol. 219 - Northern Barbarians - Khitans" quote: "契丹,本東胡種,其先爲匈奴所破,保鮮卑山。" Xu (2005)'s translation: "The Khitan were of Donghu origin. Their ancestors were defeated by the Xiongnu, and then sought refuge in the Xianbei Mountains."
- ^ Xu 2005, pp. 75, 86, 175–179.
- ^ Janhunen 2006, pp. 405–6.
- ^ Book of Wei vol. 103 "蠕蠕,東胡之苗裔也,姓郁久閭氏" tr. "Rúrú, offsprings of Dōnghú, surnamed Yùjiŭlǘ"
- ^ Pulleyblank (2000), p. 20, n. 57
- ISBN 978-1-107-11547-7.
Fan and Han noted that the Jurchens were of the Eastern Hu race (Donghuzu)
- ^ a b Li et al. 2018, pp. 1, 8–9.
- ^ Guan, Liu; Bing, Huang (2023). "The hybrid origin of the dragon-wrapped column in Han dynasty China". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 22 (4): 1970–1994.
Other evidence to support our argument is that Western, Asian-style architectural elements such as Hu statue columns and arched doorways (Figure 35) indicate the influence of foreign styles in some of the large, high-grade Han pictorial stone tombs currently found in this region, such as the afore-mentioned Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 tomb in Linyi 臨 沂, Shandong.
- ISSN 1333-2546.
- ^ PMID 23249313.
- PMID 29681138.
- ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
- ^ Li et al. 2018, p. 4, Table 2.
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External links
- The Hu Peoples, Silk Road Seattle Virtual Art Exhibit.
- Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Hu 胡, ChinaKnowledge.